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center pivot irrigation | | this article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. ( june 2012 ) | center - pivot irrigation ( sometimes called central pivot irrigation ), also called circle irrigation, is a method of crop irrigation in which equipment rotates around a pivot and crops are watered with sprinklers. a circular area centered on the pivot is irrigated, often creating a circular pattern in crops when viewed from above ( sometimes referred to as crop circles ). most center pivots were initially water - powered, and today most are propelled by electric motors. center pivot irrigation is a form of overhead sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe ( usually galvanized steel or aluminum ) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. the machine moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the circle. the outside set of wheels sets the master pace for the rotation ( typically once every three days ). the inner sets of wheels are mounted at hubs between two segments and use angle sensors to detect when the bend at the joint exceeds a certain threshold, and thus, the wheels should be rotated to keep the segments aligned. center pivots are typically less than 1600 feet ( 500 meters ) in length ( circle radius ) with the most common size being the standard 1 / 4 mile ( 400 m ) machine. to achieve uniform application, center pivots require an even emitter flow rate across the radius of the machine. since the outer - most spans ( or towers ) travel farther in a given time period than the innermost spans, nozzle sizes are smallest at the inner spans and increase with distance from the pivot point. aerial views show fields of circles created by the watery tracings of " quarter - or half - mile of the center - pivot irrigation pipe, " created by centor pivot irrigators which use " hundreds and sometimes thousands of gallons a minute. " most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u - shaped pipe called a gooseneck attached at the top of the pipe [ clarification needed ] with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet ( at most ) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses and wind drift. there are many different nozzle configurations available including static plate, moving plate and part circle. pressure regulators are typically installed upstream of each no | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.520922 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e135df68-3079-486d-9887-ab2c97da28a1> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.308617 |
are positioned a few feet ( at most ) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses and wind drift. there are many different nozzle configurations available including static plate, moving plate and part circle. pressure regulators are typically installed upstream of each nozzle to ensure each is operating at the correct design pressure. drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. this type of system is known as lepa ( low energy precision application ) and is often associated with the construction of small dams along the furrow length ( termed furrow diking / dyking ). crops may be planted in straight rows or are sometimes planted in circles to conform to the travel of the irrigation system originally, most center pivots were water - powered. these were replaced by hydraulic systems and electric motor - driven systems. most systems today are driven by an electric motor mounted at each tower. for a center pivot to be used, the terrain needs to be reasonably flat ; but one major advantage of center pivots over alternative systems is the ability to function in undulating country. this advantage has resulted in increased irrigated acreage and water use in some areas. the system is in use, for example, in parts of the united states, australia, new zealand, brazil and also in desert areas such as the sahara and the middle east. the center - pivot irrigation system is considered to be a highly efficient system which helps conserve water. it is used by arrowhead mills, the largest natural foods wholesaler in the united states, founded by organic farmer and activist frank ford from the texas panhandle, for example. however, by 2013 it was shown that as the water consumption efficiency of the center - pivot irrigator improved over the years, farmers planted more intensively, irrigated more land, and grew thirstier crops. using treated, recycled sources of water in agriculture is one approach to safeguarding the future of the aquifer. another method of reducing the amount of water use is changing to crops that require less water, such as sunflowers. center pivot irrigation typically uses less water compared to many surface irrigation and furrow irrigation techniques, which reduces the expenditure of and conserves water. it also helps to reduce labor costs compared to some ground irrigation techniques, which are often more labor intensive. some ground irrigation techniques involve the digging of channels on the land for the water to flow, whereas the use of center - pivot irrigation can reduce the amount | subdomain_quantum_metrology | 0.503999 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e135df68-3079-486d-9887-ab2c97da28a1> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.309784 |
system modification to provide variable water application depths. - gray, ellen ( may 3, 2012 ). " texas crop circles from space ". nasa. retrieved june 6, 2012. - morgan, robert ( 1993 ). water and the land. cathedral city, ca : adams publishing corp. pp. 35 – 36. isbn 0935030026. - alfred, randy ( july 22, 2008 ). " july 22, 1952 : genuine crop - circle maker patented ". wired magazine. retrieved june 6, 2012. - " growing rice where it has never grown before : a missouri research program may help better feed an increasingly hungry world ". college of agriculture, food and natural resources, university of missouri. july 3, 2008. retrieved june 6, 2012. - wines, michael ( 19 may 2013 ). " wells dry, fertile plains turn to dust ". new york times. - " about arrowhead mills ". arrowhead mills. - jeremy p. meyer, " farmers ' tower of power ", denver post, 2 october 2006. last accessed october 24, 2006 - " shrinking aquifer looms as big problem for farms ". nancy cole, arkansas democrat - gazette. september 24, 2006. last accessed october 24, 2006. - column - mansel phillips : " too many thirsty industries, not nearly enough water ". mansel phillips, amarillo globe news. october 4, 2006. last accessed october 24, 2006. - " another sign of long - term water worries ", lincoln star journal, october 8, 2006. last accessed november 20, 2012 - daily telegraph ( uk ) saturday magazine issue no 48, 446 ( dated 5 march 2011 ) pp 26 - 32 " high and dry " report by charles lawrence - morris, john miller ( 2003 ). sherry l. smith, ed. the future of the southern plains. norman, oklahoma : university of oklahoma press. p. 275. isbn 0806137355. - rainwater, ken ( 1 january 2004 ). " book review : the future of the southern plains ". great plains quarterly great plains studies ( lincoln, nebraska : center for great plains quarterly great plains studies, university of nebraska ). - darton, n. h. 1898. preliminary report on the geology and water resources of nebraska west of the one hundred and third meridian. in : walcott, c. d. ( ed ), nineteenth annual report of the united states geological survey, 1897 - 1898, part iv, pp. 719 - 78 | subdomain_quantum_metrology | 0.51716 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e135df68-3079-486d-9887-ab2c97da28a1> | 5 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.330343 |
estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments and are subject to both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water ; and riverine influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. the inflows of both sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients in both the water column and sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. most existing estuaries were formed during the holocene epoch by the flooding of river - eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10, 000 - 12, 000 years ago. estuaries are typically classified by their geomorphological features or by water circulation patterns and can be referred to by many different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets, or sounds, although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet the above definition of an estuary and may be fully saline. the banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 60 % of the world ' s population living along estuaries and the coast. as a result, many estuaries are suffering degradation by many factors, including sedimentation from soil erosion from deforestation, overgrazing, and other poor farming practices ; overfishing ; drainage and filling of wetlands ; eutrophication due to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes ; pollutants including heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs ; and diking or damming for flood control or water diversion. the word " estuary " is derived from the latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, which in itself is derived from the term aestus, meaning tide. there have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. the most widely accepted definition is : " a semi - enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea, and within sea water is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage ". however, this definition excludes a number of coastal water bodies such as coastal lagoons and brackish seas. a more comprehensive definition of an estuary is " a semi - enclosed body of water connected to the sea as far as the tidal limit or the salt intrusion limit and receiving freshwater runoff ; however the freshwater inflow may not be perennial, the connection to the sea may be closed for part of the year and tidal influence may be negli | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.534379 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:74b0fbd9-6082-4ee8-85b1-e91c71136f73> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.386957 |
san andreas fault system causing the inundation of the lower reaches of the sacramento and san joaquin rivers. classification based on water circulation in this type of estuary, river output greatly exceeds marine input and tidal effects have a minor importance. fresh water floats on top of the seawater in a layer that gradually thins as it moves seaward. the denser seawater moves landward along the bottom of the estuary, forming a wedge - shaped layer that is thinner as it approaches land. as a velocity difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing the seawater upward with the freshwater. an example of a salt wedge estuary is the mississippi river. as tidal forcing increases, river output becomes less than the marine input. here, current induced turbulence causes mixing of the whole water column such that salinity varies more longitudinally rather than vertically, leading to a moderately stratified condition. examples include the chesapeake bay and narragansett bay. tidal mixing forces exceed river output, resulting in a well mixed water column and the disappearance of the vertical salinity gradient. the freshwater - seawater boundary is eliminated due to the intense turbulent mixing and eddy effects. the lower reaches of the delaware bay and the raritan river in new jersey are examples of vertically homogenous estuaries. inverse estuaries occur in dry climates where evaporation greatly exceeds the inflow of fresh water. a salinity maximum zone is formed, and both riverine and oceanic water flow close to the surface towards this zone. this water is pushed downward and spreads along the bottom in both the seaward and landward direction. an example of an inverse estuary is spencer gulf, south australia. ( see also estuarine water circulation ) the most important variable characteristics of estuary water are the concentration of dissolved oxygen, salinity and sediment load. there is extreme spatial variability in salinity, with a range of near zero at the tidal limit of the tributary river ( s ) to 3. 4 % at the estuary mouth. at any one point the salinity will vary considerably over time and seasons, making it a harsh environment for organisms. sediment often settles in intertidal mudflats which are extremely difficult to colonize. no points of attachment exist for algae, so vegetation based habitat is not established [ clarification needed ]. sediment can also clog feeding and respiratory structures of species, and special adaptations exist within mudflat species to cope with this problem. lastly, dissolved oxygen variation can cause problems for life | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.527244 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:74b0fbd9-6082-4ee8-85b1-e91c71136f73> | 3 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.543680 |
iso 838, this 3 - hole system appears to have no well - established exact specification. it can only be applied to paper formats that are at least 240 mm high. another standard also occasionally used in the united states is a filebinder system. its two holes are positioned symmetrically, with the centres 70 mm ( 2 - 3 / 4 inch ) apart. in sweden, a four - hole national standard is almost exclusively used. the centres of the holes are 21mm, 70mm and 21 mm apart. the guides help keep the paper in a straight line. the official name of this four - hole system is triohalning since it was adapted to the " trio binder " which was awarded swedish patent in 1890. the binder ' s inventor andreas tengwall supposedly named it after a consortium consisting of himself and two companions, i. e., a trio. according to shaugho punchers inc., the ideal 1 hole punch places the centre of the hole punched at 1. 0 cm in from the left of a page and 4. 0 cm down from the top of a page. according to killeen co., the punched hole should between 0. 9 cm and 1. 1 cm from the left hand side of a page and between 3. 9 cm and 4. 1 cm from the top of a page. uses of hole punches single hole punches single hole punches are often used to punch tickets, which indicates its credit has been used, and to make confetti when creating scrapbooks and other paper crafts. for applications needing a variety of hole shapes, a ticket punch may be used. a single hole punch differs from a ticket punch in having a shorter reach and no choice of hole shape. in the united states, single hole punches are often used to punch holes through playing cards, rendering them " used. " this helps cut down on cheating by eliminating any cards that may have been tainted by players. paper drilling is also popular for this purpose. a related office tool is the eyelet punch. this is a single - hole punch which also presses a metal fastening loop around the hole. it is used to permanently secure a few sheets of paper together which must not be separated or modified. multiple hole punches multiple hole punches typically make between one and eight holes at one time, the placement of which matches the spacing of the rings in a binder. for example the filofax system uses six holes in two groups of three. with a few exceptions, two - hole and four - hole punches | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.509784 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:51e4ae0b-0028-4e3c-8c4a-2a633ebcf1c2> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.569237 |
master data management | | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( april 2012 ) | in computing, master data management ( mdm ) comprises a set of processes, governance, policies, standards and tools that consistently defines and manages the master data ( i. e. non - transactional data entities ) of an organization ( which may include reference data ). an mdm tool can be used to support master data management by removing duplicates, standardizing data ( mass maintaining ), incorporating rules to eliminate incorrect data from entering the system in order to create an authoritative source of master data. master data are the products, accounts and parties for which the business transactions are completed. the root cause problem stems from business unit and product line segmentation, in which the same customer will be serviced by different product lines, with redundant data being entered about the customer ( aka party in the role of customer ) and account in order to process the transaction. the redundancy of party and account data is compounded in the front to back office life cycle, where the authoritative single source for the party, account and product data is needed but is often once again redundantly entered or augmented. mdm has the objective of providing processes for collecting, aggregating, matching, consolidating, quality - assuring, persisting and distributing such data throughout an organization to ensure consistency and control in the ongoing maintenance and application use of this information. the term recalls the concept of a master file from an earlier computing era. at a basic level, mdm seeks to ensure that an organization does not use multiple ( potentially inconsistent ) versions of the same master data in different parts of its operations, which can occur in large organizations. a common example of poor mdm is the scenario of a bank at which a customer has taken out a mortgage and the bank begins to send mortgage solicitations to that customer, ignoring the fact that the person already has a mortgage account relationship with the bank. this happens because the customer information used by the marketing section within the bank lacks integration with the customer information used by the customer services section of the bank. thus the two groups remain unaware that an existing customer is also considered a sales lead. the process of record linkage is used to associate different records that correspond to the same entity, in this case the same person. other problems include ( for example ) issues with the quality of data, consistent classification and identification of data, and data - reconciliation issues. master data management of disparate data systems requires data transformations as the data extracted | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.54354 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:db7c0606-18c6-4aad-bb5a-025113c9809c> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.579655 |
in this case the same person. other problems include ( for example ) issues with the quality of data, consistent classification and identification of data, and data - reconciliation issues. master data management of disparate data systems requires data transformations as the data extracted from the disparate source data system is transformed and loaded into the master data management hub. to synchronize the disparate source master data, the managed master data extracted from the master data management hub is again transformed and loaded into the disparate source data system as the master data is updated. as with other extract, transform, load - based data movement, these processes are expensive and inefficient to develop and to maintain which greatly reduces the return on investment for the master data management product. one of the most common reasons some large corporations experience massive issues with mdm is growth through mergers or acquisitions. two organizations which merge will typically create an entity with duplicate master data ( since each likely had at least one master database of its own prior to the merger ). ideally, database administrators resolve this problem through deduplication of the master data as part of the merger. in practice, however, reconciling several master data systems can present difficulties because of the dependencies that existing applications have on the master databases. as a result, more often than not the two systems do not fully merge, but remain separate, with a special reconciliation process defined that ensures consistency between the data stored in the two systems. over time, however, as further mergers and acquisitions occur, the problem multiplies, more and more master databases appear, and data - reconciliation processes become extremely complex, and consequently unmanageable and unreliable. because of this trend, one can find organizations with 10, 15, or even as many as 100 separate, poorly integrated master databases, which can cause serious operational problems in the areas of customer satisfaction, operational efficiency, decision - support, and regulatory compliance. processes commonly seen in mdm solutions include source identification, data collection, data transformation, normalization, rule administration, error detection and correction, data consolidation, data storage, data distribution, data classification, taxonomy services, item master creation, schema mapping, product codification, data enrichment and data governance the tools include data networks, file systems, a data warehouse, data marts, an operational data store, data mining, data analysis, data virtualization, data federation and data visualization. one of the newest tools, virtual master data management ( also called virtual mdm ) utilizes data virtualization | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.552921 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:db7c0606-18c6-4aad-bb5a-025113c9809c> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.586125 |
data warehouse, data marts, an operational data store, data mining, data analysis, data virtualization, data federation and data visualization. one of the newest tools, virtual master data management ( also called virtual mdm ) utilizes data virtualization and a persistent metadata server to implement a multi - level automated mdm hierarchy. the selection of entities considered for mdm depends somewhat on the nature of an organization. in the common case of commercial enterprises, mdm may apply to such entities as customer ( customer data integration ), product ( product information management ), employee, and vendor. mdm processes identify the sources from which to collect descriptions of these entities. in the course of transformation and normalization, administrators adapt descriptions to conform to standard formats and data domains, making it possible to remove duplicate instances of any entity. such processes generally result in an organizational mdm repository, from which all requests for a certain entity instance produce the same description, irrespective of the originating sources and the requesting destination. criticism of mdm solutions the value and current approaches to mdm have come under criticism due to some parties claiming large costs and low return on investment from major mdm solution providers. - reference data - master data - record linkage - data steward - data visualization - customer data integration - data integration - information as a service - product information management - identity resolution - enterprise information integration - linked data - semantic web - data governance - operational data store - form, fit and function - single customer view - master data management at the open directory project - microsoft : the what, why, and how of master data management - microsoft : master data management ( mdm ) hub architecture - polarlake : reference data management ( rdm ) and governance - open methodology for master data management - semarchy : why do i need mdm? ( video ) - mdm community - mdm landscape | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.571089 | 380 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:db7c0606-18c6-4aad-bb5a-025113c9809c> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.588758 |
easier to estimate development effort. - require close customer contact throughout the project so that the most valued parts of the software get implemented. story maps a story map is the graphical, two - dimensional product backlog. at the top of the map are big user stories, which can sometimes be considered " epics ” as mike cohn describes them and other times correspond to " themes " or " activities ". these grouping units are created by orienting at the user ’ s workflow or " the order you ' d explain the behavior of the system ". vertically, below the epics, the actual story cards are allocated and ordered by priority. the first horizontal row is a " walking skeleton " and below that represents increasing sophistication. in this way it becomes possible to describe even big systems without losing the big picture. some of the limitations of user stories in agile methodologies : - they can be difficult to scale to large projects. - they are regarded as conversation starters. user stories and use cases while both user stories and use cases serve the purpose to capture specific user requirements in terms of interactions between the user and the system, there are major differences between them. | user stories | | use cases | see also - acceptance testing - extreme programming - use case - kanban board - agile software development - invest mnemonic - daniel h. steinberg and daniel w. palmer : extreme software engineering, pearson education, inc., isbn 0 - 13 - 047381 - 2 - mike cohn, " user stories applied ", 2004, addison wesley, isbn 0 - 321 - 20568 - 5 - mike cohn : agile estimating and planning, 2006, prentice hall, isbn 0 - 13 - 147941 - 5 - davies, rachel. " non - functional requirements : do user stories really help? ". retrieved 12 may 2011. - patton, jeff. " the new user story backlog is a map ". retrieved 4 march 2013. - cockburn, alistair. " walking skeleton ". retrieved 4 march 2013. - " story mapping ". agile alliance. retrieved 4 march 2013. - advantages of user stories for requirements | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.528746 | 435 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:023c2720-4236-4000-b530-4e0512b51461> | 3 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.729433 |
some time, because they were further removed from the physical problem. the poor passengers still unfortunately suffered the highest fatality rates, because the wealthy benefitted from having privileged access to the lifeboats. we see the same phenomenon on display today, on a much larger scale. having islamophobia in europe today is just as rational as having icebergophobia on board the titanic in 1912. uhrskov jensen in 2012 published another book, indvandringens pris ( " the price of immigration ” ) about how much money non - european mass immigration costs his native denmark. his conclusion is that this cost is great in terms of welfare payments and rising crime combined with declining efficiency and technological innovation. he shows through carefully researched statistics that only certain asian immigrants are able to keep up with northern europeans in the educational system. a few skilled immigrants from india or elsewhere can compete, but mainly those from east asia : japanese, koreans, chinese, and to some extent vietnamese. all other non - western immigrants show lower levels of skill and competence than europeans, many of them a lot lower. it should be mentioned here that these numbers correlate quite well with average iq, where a few other asians can compete with europeans, but primarily east asians. other ethnic groups cannot do so. although it has become taboo to say this in the modern western world, it is well - documented fact that iq correlates well with economic level, for individuals as well as for nations. the scholar charles murray has written much about this. former professor helmuth nyborg at aarhus university in denmark has conducted controversial research on the subject of the genetic inheritance of intelligence. his conclusion is that today ’ s mass immigration of non - europeans will lead to an overall marked decline in the average intelligence of the population, and by extension a significant decline in social and economic competence, scientific progress, as well as technological innovation. for decades westerners have been told that immigration from less developed third world countries is " good for the economy ” and will " pay for future pensions. ” morten uhrskov jensen proves conclusively that this claim is fundamentally wrong, not just regarding denmark or scandinavia but for other western countries, too. certain private companies may enjoy short - term benefits by having access to cheap labor and borderless export markets. socialist parties can cynically import a reliable voter base of backward peoples who overwhelmingly vote for left - wing parties so they can receive generous welfare payments from the high tax payments extracted from the majority population, essentially forcing the white natives to fund | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.537471 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:8f40a1af-e652-4fb7-b137-9fbfce599f47> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.741811 |
how strong is the strong force? i bet you think you asked a simple question. the simple answer is that the strength depends on the range over which it is acting. at short distances the strong force is weak and at long distances it is strong. that is completely different from the other three forces and arises because the forces transmitters, called gluons, are massless and carry strong force charge. i hope that you are still interested in the more complicated answer given below in which i try to explain how this can be so. the strong force attraction between two protons has a complicated shape which depends on the distance between the protons. the strong force between two protons is partially offset by the repelling electromagnetic forces. the strong force binds the protons with about 25 mev of energy. the electromagnetic forces repel it with slightly less. the result is that about 1 mev of energy would be required to split the two protons apart. in the rest of this reply i discuss the fundamental forces in more detail so you can get an idea why the strong force is different from the others. the four forces of nature are the strong force, the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the gravitational force. we study the first three ( and experience the last ) at fermilab. we are most familiar with gravity and second - most familiar with the electromagnetic force in our daily routine. so i will start by comparing the strength of them and then show how they compare to the weak and strong forces. first of all, the strength of a force depends on the distance over which it is acting. for gravity, the force exerted by one object on another drops according to the square of the distance between the two objects. the equation for the force exerted by gravity is : where g is a small constant, and m and m are the masses of the two objects. the minus sign merely indicates the force is attractive. we say the " range " of the gravitional force is " unlimited " because it is exertible over an arbitrarily large distance. it just gets smaller the further the two objects are from each other. the electromagnetic force has a similar formula. the replusive force between two electrons is : where c is a big constant, and e ( typed in once for each of the two charges ) is the charge of the electron. notice the strength of the force drops with the distance between the charges in a way identical to gravity. also, if we were talking about an electron and an anti - electron | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.615206 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:68df6dec-0c9d-44aa-8f93-eb17e7711579> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.762424 |
in once for each of the two charges ) is the charge of the electron. notice the strength of the force drops with the distance between the charges in a way identical to gravity. also, if we were talking about an electron and an anti - electron ( which has the opposite charge ), then there would be a minus sign indicating the force between opposite charges is attractive. we can compare the strength of the gravitational force to the electromagnetic force on two electrons by taking the ratio between the two forces. the distance - squared cancels out and we are left with : f ( gravity ) / f ( em ) = gmm / cee. i intentionally dropped the minus sign ; i will simply remember that the gravitional force between the electrons is attractive and the electromagnetic force between the two electrons is replusive. anyway, when i plug in the values for g, m, c, and e, the ratio is 2. 4x10 ^ ( - 43 ). in words that is pronounced two - point - four times ten to the minus forty - three. that is a very small number. in other words, the gravitational force between two electrons is feeble compared to the electromagnetic force. the reason that you feel the force of gravity, even though it is so weak, is that every atom in the earth is attracting every one of your atoms and there are a lot of atoms in both you and the earth. the reason you aren ' t buffeted around by electromagnetic forces is that you have almost the same number of positive charges as negative ones, so you are ( essentially ) electrically neutral. the weak force is misnamed. it ' s thought to be just as strong as the em force but, unlike the em force, it ' s a short - ranged force. in fact, the range is only about 1 / 100 the size of an atomic nucleus. the weak force is outside the realm of our everyday experience. we study it at fermilab by using the accelerator to produce the particles which transmit the force. these are real particles called the w - boson and the z - boson. because they are very massive, we need a high - energy accelerator to produce them. the large mass of the w - boson and the z - boson is also the reason the force has a short range. incidentally, the particle which carries the em force is called the photon ( yes, light ). because photons are massless, the em force has a long range as i described above. the weak force and | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.635161 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:68df6dec-0c9d-44aa-8f93-eb17e7711579> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.764801 |
the force has a short range. incidentally, the particle which carries the em force is called the photon ( yes, light ). because photons are massless, the em force has a long range as i described above. the weak force and the em force have been found to be linked at high - energy or, equivalently, short range. they both can be described by one set of equations which we call the " electro - weak " theory. this was discovered in 1967 - 1971 by steven weinberg, sheldon glashow, and abdus salam. they got the nobel prize in physics for unifying those forces. finally i am ready to talk about the strong force. this is way out of the experience we get in everyday life ( not that it doesn ' t have everyday life consequences ), so i will be a little more long - winded in describing it. remember that a proton or neutron is composed of three quarks? these quarks have strong charge and are bound together by the strong force. unlike the case of the em force, where there is one electric charge and one anti - charge ( plus and minus charges ) there are three strong force charges and three anti - charges. we call the strong force charges " red ", " blue ", and " yellow " and the anti - charges are called " anti - red " and so forth. the particles which transmit the force are called gluons. gluons are massless, like the photon. but unlike the photon, which is electrically neutral, the gluons carry strong charge and a different strong anti - charge. a gluon could be " red - anti - blue ", for example, and there are eight kinds of gluons. we call the three charges " colors " even though they have nothing to do with how we see. because the gluon is massless, at first you might think the range of the strong force is infinite, like the em force. but if you study the behavior of the strong force, you find that the three quarks in a proton or neutron behave almost as if they were bouncing around freely in a relaxed, elastic spherical container. none of the quarks can escape the container because when the quark reaches the boundary of the proton or neutron, the force begins to act and gets stronger and stronger the further away the that quark gets from the others. that is very different from the other forces which get weaker at longer distances and it occurs because the gluons | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.641193 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:68df6dec-0c9d-44aa-8f93-eb17e7711579> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.766958 |
of the proton or neutron, the force begins to act and gets stronger and stronger the further away the that quark gets from the others. that is very different from the other forces which get weaker at longer distances and it occurs because the gluons have the color and anti - color charge. the strong force also acts between protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus much in the same way that simple chemicals are held together by the electric force. a nucleus such as helium, which has two ( positively em - charged ) protons, is stable because the strong force overcomes the electromagnetic forces. the strong force binds the two protons with about 25 - 35 mev of energy. the electromagnetic forces try to push the protons apart. the net result is that approximately 1 million electron - volts of energy are needed to separate the two protons. in contrast, an electron is bound to a proton in a hydrogen atom by only a few electron - volts. by now you know enough to consider the size of the nucleus in comparison to the size of an atom to judge if this is truly a fair comparison! the strong force is, indeed, strong. we think that if we could study the electroweak and strong forces at high enough energy we would find out they were linked together somehow, like electricity and magnetism are to form em, and like em and the weak force are to form electro - weak. such a theory would be called a grand - unified theory. and we also think that it may be possibe to include gravity with the other three. such a theory would be called a super - grand - unified theory and there is a candidate for that called " superstrings ". so you asked a simple question : " how strong is the strong force? ". the answer is that it depends on the range. at short distances it is weak and at long distances it is strong. that effect is completely different from the other three forces and arises because the forces transmitters, called gluons, are massless and have strong - charge and different strong anti - charge. if you want to learn more about particle physics and the work we do at fermilab, the book " the god particle " by leon lederman and dick teresi gives a very good and readable explanation. | last modified 1 / 11 / 1999 firstname. lastname @ example. org | | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.635029 | 485 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:68df6dec-0c9d-44aa-8f93-eb17e7711579> | 3 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.768796 |
you hold in your hands the definitive version of writings of halfard. it is one of the most famous books in history, and with good reason, being chronicle of a period of time in the fourth fused universe, 1419 - 1819. this was, of course, the time of puff. this version of the book holds all materials ever incorporated into it. this means it will be quite thicker than most university editions, which are non - definitive. halfard was puffs elfish secretary. he lived from about 40, 000, 000 bc to 2487 ad. it is unclear of the circumstances in which he wrote this, but it may be assumed that most of it was written off his notes, and the rest was gradually fitted in between his writing and the posthumous publication in 2493 ad. halfard was an interesting person, in that he wrote such an important book, but was barely mentioned in other writings, or even in this. we shall, sadly, know very little about him, but what we do is sufficient for now. since halfard was an elf, we do fortunately have that odd elfish style which is a sure sign of anyone ’ s origin. this is mainly how we know certain things were added after the original writing. if halfard is interesting, puff is more so. he was born in the dark depths of russia, and his family emigrated to england in the yaga - gnomic war of the 800 ’ s. st. george then promptly killed his family. this leads to an interesting thought. puff is known for being a great lover of freedom and equality of peoples. but he intensely hated knights, and, during his government, launched wars for their destruction. these contradictions are interesting, but i should not deign to address everything in the introduction. good reading. john kivvers, editor. all material in this book, except that written by myself, was originally written in a foreign language. i have attempted to translate it as literally as possible without making it unintelligible. if a line has been left in its original language, that is because it is a foreign language to the author, and intentionally written in that language. any of these will be translated in the appendix. | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.521159 | 449 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:3a8fbb41-98d3-43b3-b05f-3a39ea2b1f71> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.771660 |
are developed and delivered in creative, participatory methods that are based on living projects in self - directed ways. it is believed that the students not only learn advanced knowledge in these relevant industries but that they develop actual skills sets needed to become valued employees. the students learn business world and college world “ people skills ”, project management skills, leadership, teamwork, time management and problem solving. each target student groups can be inspired accelerate their educational productivity. the “ at risk ” students find that there are reasons for learning traditional subjects in school and the advanced students are allowed to enhance their gifts and dreams. what we do funds and support would help increase capacity of our after school programs including the kahuku sustainability and film clubs and building living sustainability projects. we will continue to develop new advance curriculum and film the student projects as a “ students teaching students ” educational video series a portion of the funds would be used to hold contests around renewable energy issues that would inspire students to learn using a camera as a fun learning tool. our intended participants the goal is to bring these educational experiences to at least 100 per year in the sustainability programs and 100 students in the film - digital media programs. the students will be selected from those attending khis, while 100 more students will be offered program experiences from kahuku elementary school.. outcomes we you expect the outcomes would be measured in terms of the number of students in the programs, learning projects, and learning contests. we will continue to build a platform in kahuku that will become a major pipeline for innovative learning programs, mentors, internships, and courses in 21st century careers skills and knowledge. benefits to students will include a decrease in drop out students, improvement of grades, and more gifted students entering the competitive smart technological fields that add to the quality of life in the islands. how we will measure the expected outcomes the success of our program can be measured by the number of students taking the sustainability and renewable energy classes and the digital media courses. we will also measure the number of students that have received certifications and have participated in our learning experience projects, contests, and field trips. motivation of the students in our programs can be measured by attendance, improvement in grades, and placement in colleges. these accumulated certifications, interactions with mentors, new letters of recommendations, sustainability and digital media contests won will go far to improve the chances of students being accepted in colleges and receiving scholarships. how funds are spent the aquaponic projects will require the purchase of all materials to build the working model including pumps, | subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics | 0.517956 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c2451e17-9806-4dfe-b11b-53139e9398a9> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.848903 |
cloud computing is either a revolutionary it management tool or a nebulous puff of marketing hype, depending on whom you ask. for now, we ’ re thinking it ’ s puffery — but intriguing developments are under way. a cloudy concept rather than house your own it servers or rent the maximum processing and storage capacity you ’ ll ever need, why not pay only for what you use, when you use it? that ’ s the basic idea behind cloud computing — and it ’ s an alluring possibility for many reasons, not least the desire to contain costs and reduce energy consumption. but it turns out that much of the appeal is based on a murky understanding of the concept. according to research by gartner group vice president mark mcdonald, the percentage of cios interested in cloud computing has grown considerably, from 5 % in 2009 to 37 % earlier this year. and the bigger the company, the more likely management is to say that cloud computing is a top - five it priority. interest in cloud computing but three out of four respondents who profess interest in cloud computing report little to none in three of the key technologies it entails : server virtualization, service - oriented architecture, and software as a service. further, nearly half the respondents equate cloud computing with virtualization alone, which shows that many executives have an incomplete view of it. cloud computing has rapidly risen to what mcdonald calls “ the peak of inflated expectations. ” and where is it headed next? the “ trough of disillusionment, ” he says. that ’ s because few people can even seem to agree on what cloud computing is, never mind how on earth it should work. the national institute of standards and technology ( nist ) it laboratory ’ s definition, version 15, is more than 760 words long and includes five characteristics, three service models, four deployment models, and a disclaimer saying, in essence, that the definition will change again soon. is the cloud greener? despite all the confusion about cloud computing, the it laboratory at nist lays out some figures that make a compelling environmental case for it. according to one nist presentation, the number of servers in traditional data centers in the u. s. doubled from 2001 to 2006. power consumption per server quadrupled in the same time period, even though servers typically operate at only 15 % of capacity. | subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics | 0.56354 | 479 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:42c47b51-1566-477b-86e6-d2a88a178f0f> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.852915 |
despite our best efforts to replicate hormones, slow the ageing process and map the human brain, our bodies are smarter than we ' ll likely ever understand. but not everything is so complex. when we ' re feeling tired, stressed or rundown, our bodies let us know with some very basic signals. ignore them at your peril writes rosalind scutt. in a perfect world we ' d live long, healthy lives, free from illness and disease. although developments in medical science are bringing us closer to that point, there is still much we do not understand about our own physiology how it works, and why it breaks down. while we ' re waiting for research to unlock the secrets to infinitely good health, it ' s reassuring to know that very often, before our bodies do malfunction, we ' re likely to see some obvious warning signs associated with a weakening immune system. some common physical symptoms include sweating, headaches, cold sores, thrush and other skin inflammation such as eczema, while emotional symptoms include feelings of irritability, anxiety, aggression or fatigue. these indicators should serve as a serious warning that we require additional rest and care, but many of us are inclined to take a cold and flu tablet and solider on. valiant though this may seem, a growing body of research suggests that this approach may jeopardise our health in the long term with potentially fatal consequences. earlier this year a study titled chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk found that stress affects the body ' s ability to protect against illness by directly impacting the immune system. in particular, the study, which was published in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences, found that cortisol ( a hormone produced during times of stress ) temporarily suppresses the immune system and reduces the body ' s natural inflammatory response to viruses and bacteria. " the immune system ' s ability to regulate inflammation predicts who will develop a cold, but more importantly it provides an explanation of how stress can promote disease, " lead researcher, sheldon cohen, of carnegie mellon university in pittsburgh said. " when under stress, cells of the immune system are unable to respond to hormonal control, and consequently, produce levels of inflammation that promote disease. because inflammation plays a role in many diseases such as cardiovascular, asthma and autoimmune disorders, this model suggests why stress impacts them as well. " dr mark smyth of the peter maccallum cancer centre in melbourne, australia ' s only public hospital | subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics | 0.534957 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c4275078-ae3c-4fce-a477-0bcf3e73b7f2> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.857053 |
( source : washington university school of medicine in st. louis, news release, aug. 30, 2012 ) tuesday, sept. 4 ( healthday news ) - - at least seven antibiotic - resistant genes have recently passed between soil bacteria and bacteria that cause human disease, according to a new study. further research is needed to determine how widespread this sharing is, and to what extent it could make disease - causing bacteria harder to control, said the researchers at washington university school of medicine in st. louis. " it is commonplace for antibiotics to make their way into the environment. our results suggest that this may enhance drug resistance in soil bacteria in ways that could one day be shared with bacteria that cause human disease, " first author and graduate student kevin forsberg said in a university news release. for this study, the researchers analyzed the dna of bacteria in soil samples collected at various locations in the united states. the findings were published recently in the journal science. the researchers said it ' s important to find the answers to many questions, such as : did the genes pass from soil bacteria to human pathogens or vice versa? are the genes just the tip of a vast reservoir of shared resistance? did some combination of luck and a new technique for studying genes across entire bacterial communities lead to the discovery of the shared resistance genes? while humans only mix their genes when they have children, bacteria regularly exchange genes throughout their lifecycles. that means that when a strain of bacteria develops resistance to antibiotics, it can share this ability not only with its descendants but also with other bacteria, the researchers explained. " i suspect the soil is not a teeming reservoir of resistance genes. but if factory farms or medical clinics continue to release antibiotics into the environment, it may enrich that reservoir, potentially making resistance genes more accessible to infectious bacteria, " study senior author gautam dantas, an assistant professor of pathology and immunology, said in the news release. the u. s. food and drug administration has more about antibiotic resistance. copyright © 2013 scoutnews, llc. all rights reserved. healthdaynews articles are derived from various sources and do not reflect federal policy. healthfinder. gov does not endorse opinions, products, or services that may appear in news stories. for more information on health topics in the news, visit health news on healthfinder. gov. | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.519621 | 479 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:66ced9bb-bfa2-45df-87fb-c10ca3631edd> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.860521 |
nothing! optional ; cards of the letters you want to practice. students are divided into teams. the target sounds are written on the blackboard as letters. the first student from each group stands up in front of the blackboard with a fan. the teacher says a word which uses a target sound, and the students have to hit the letter which makes that sound. the first student to hit the correct letter is the winner. have the students stand in lines to save time while taking turns. vowel sound variationedit this variation of the game distinguishes between different vowel sounds. instead of using letters, use picture cards to represent the particular sounds. the teacher will say a word, and the students have to hit the picture with the same vowel sound. this variation concentrates on the ' y ' sound. write the kanji for ' year ' ( 年 ( ねん - nen? ) ) and ' ear ' ( 耳 ( みみ mimi? ) ) on the blackboard. say the word ' year ' or ' ear ', and students have to hit the correct kanji. this variation concentrates on only two words. write two similar words on the blackboard, such as ' right ' and ' light ' and the students have to hit the correct word. see pronunciation problems for a comprehensive list. in a similar fashion to how karuta is played, students in a group have the cards in front of them and try to be the first to hit them. this variation enables a higher level of student involvement. this lesson plan was taken from the sixth edition of team taught pizza. | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.502204 | 320 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:28510b90-7042-486b-aa3c-996e98018d6b> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.876254 |
in preparation for the fifth centenary of the reformation in 2017, the vatican and the world lutheran federation are preparing a joint document on the course of events in the early sixteenth century. the humboldt university in berlin is also building up to the centenary with lectures and discussions. i was honored to take part in a disputatio with professor notger slencka, a foremost connoisseur of luther ’ s work, under the auspices of the romano guardini foundation, on may 7, 2012, in which i took the side of erasmus as we re - argued the famous discussion on free will between the humanist and the reformer. the epoch of the renaissance and the reformation sought to overcome scholastic metaphysics by a return to the sources, a purification of language, and a new encounter with the realities of human experience and biblical revelation. overcoming metaphysics in theology means protecting the biblical language and the biblical phenomena against the insidious falsification brought about by metaphysical habits of thought. the late scholasticism that both luther and erasmus resisted lives on today in the usa among analytical philosophers of religion who believe that it is the sole business of theology of puzzles over metaphysical riddles such as a the apparent incompatibility between divine simplicity and the multiplicity of divine attributes and actions, or between divine omnipotence and the existence of evil, or between divine foreknowledge and predestination and the reality of free will. these philosophers think that modern theology has lost its intellectual grip through its strategy of avoiding these hard problems. thanks to the reformation and to historical biblical scholarship, theology today is more richly based in scripture than was the case in the middle ages. before getting caught up in metaphysical conundrums, theologians test them against the biblical vision of god and the world. they discern that the god of analytical neoscholastic philosophy is very remote from the god of abraham, isaac, and jacob, the living, saving god presented in church preaching. the analytical debate about god is a factory for producing refined philosophical concepts and arguments, but its value for christian theology remains slight. in his ratio verae theologiae ( 1519 ), erasmus taught that scripture contains all christian doctrine and dogmas. he influenced his fellow humanist and luther ’ s comrade in arms, philip melanchthon, who in his loci communes ( 1521 ) sought to draw all the essential theological truths from an exegesis of the epistle to the romans. erasmus felt he stood on solid ground, then, when he challenged luther | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.507521 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.906687 |
). ‘ when i say that free will does some good, i link it with grace ; as long as it obeys grace it is happily acted on and acts ; when it resists, it merits to be deserted by grace, and when deserted it does only evil acts ’ ( aw iv, 414 - 16 ). here he presents not a neutral, independent will, which decides sovereignly by itself whether to obey grace or its own vices, addictions, obsessions, and bad habits. the unfreedom of the will lies deeper than these, in the fundamental option by which one ’ s life is directed. erasmus does not preach a will that always remains free to choose between the proud, self - centered motivation and the orientation to god ’ s will and his kingdom. he sees that the will can be freed from self - bondage only through grace, though he lacks luther ’ s concrete feeling for this tragic servitude and for how little we have the power of choice in our own hands. luther was shocked that erasmus referred to the question of the role played by free will in the process of salvation as a matter of superfluous speculation. the genre of the diatribe gave the impression that he wanted to treat the role of free will as a quaestio disputata, in which the pelagians also were given a respectful hearing. his defense of free will sounds as if it is merely a question of correct, approved opinion, rather than a matter of ultimate concern. luther found this detachment intolerable. this was not because the bible had given a clear and unambiguous answer, as luther wanted to believe, but more because augustine and the church had detected and denounced the pelagian error of giving the primary role in salvation to our free will. luther ’ s years as an augustinian monk and theologian shaped his reception of scripture. erasmus must also claim, like luther, that the bible gives a clear answer, since the holy spirit ‘ cannot fight with itself ’ ( aw iv, 156 ), and he, too, underestimates the plurality and contradictoriness of the biblical statements. luther shows that the sinner is totally enslaved, and he gives to the righteous only a freedom that comes from outside, the freedom of passive obedience, not that of creative cooperation with divine grace. a synergy between human freedom and divine grace in the event of justification is what he most vigilantly excludes, and perhaps there is no real contradiction on this particular issue between | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.501589 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 5 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.912492 |
freedom of passive obedience, not that of creative cooperation with divine grace. a synergy between human freedom and divine grace in the event of justification is what he most vigilantly excludes, and perhaps there is no real contradiction on this particular issue between him and erasmus, trent, and modern catholic theology. but that grace works in and through creative human freedom is the best insight of christian humanism, which luther, at least in de servo arbitrio, holds at a distance. it is true that the text does refer occasionally to cooperation between god and human freedom, but only in a muted and concessive way, emphasizing so massively the asymmetry between the divine and human element, that the latter scarcely attains any vivid profile. only grudgingly and in subclauses does he use expressions such as ‘ whereby the creature cooperates with god who operates ’ ( 18, 753 ), whereas it is with great rhetorical and existential force that he declares, ‘ our freedom is nothing ’ ( 18, 720 ). had luther made an effort to build on what he and erasmus had in common, the future of lutheran and ecumenical theology might have been brighter. erasmus notes luther ’ s concessions, but likewise fails to build on them, preferring to see them as contradictions : luther said first that free will had only the power to sin, then that ‘ it is nothing at all, ’ and finally, that ‘ as if reborn, free will cooperates with grace in good works and with the aid of grace can do all things ’ ( 1480 ). luther uses weak metaphysical arguments to boost his case. he asks how the will can be free if neither angels nor humans can exist for a moment by their own power ( 18, 662 ), as if it were impossible for god to create and sustain free beings. even adam and eve, made in the divine image, had no free will. the fall is not a loss of free will but a consequence of its absence. adam and eve were unhappy that god had given them no power of free decision in regard to their relationship with him. even the editors of the weimar edition note that luther ’ s claim that augustine was totally on his side ( wa 18, 640 ) comes to grief here, since augustine denies the necessity of adam ’ s sin. luther ’ s thesis of the non - existence of free will is not biblical, and needs to be shored up by metaphysical arguments, which are constructed ad hoc. erasmus saw that when luther spoke as a scholastic | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.512159 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 6 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.913582 |
question ’ ( wa 18, 616 ). he himself denies that judas suffers any necessitas coactionis, and affirms rather a necessitas immutabilitatis, a necessitas infallibilitatis ad tempus, which does not impinge on judas ’ s freedom ( 720 - 1 ). here again erasmus might have built on a rough agreement between luther and himself, but instead he rejects luther ’ s proposal as philosophically feeble ( x, 1424 ). in tit for tat style he mocks luther as a metaphysician in several places, and pounces on his inconsistencies : ‘ judas willingly betrayed the lord, luther admits, though he elsewhere teaches that the human will performs nothing either in good or evil ’ ( 1424 ). what turned judas from being a faithful apostle into a traitor? luther would answer, ‘ the divinely willed withdrawal of grace. ’ erasmus sees this as ‘ a kind of force, ’ and insists that ‘ judas could have not taken up the will to betray, or having taken it up he could have put it down again ’ ( 1425 ). this sounds self - evident, but for luther it is blasphemy, not only because it underestimates the power of sin to bind the will and the inability of the will to free itself, but because it takes the salvation or damnation of the sinner out of god ’ s hands. yet in insisting that judas is nonetheless not forced, luther implicitly refers to the same double register that he has denounced as eluding the violence of the question. when he reached for the weapons of metaphysics to defend grace from the claims of human autonomy, luther thought he could use them tactically, in the service of the biblical matter, without having to bow to the rigors of classical metaphysical logic. he often imaginatively gives scholastic terminology a surprising new concrete and biblical meaning, but at the price of much inaccuracy and ambiguity. in de servo arbitrio his high - handed way with metaphysical terms and arguments boomerangs on him, causing a distortion of his message, which takes on the monstrous appearance of a metaphysical determinism. his true aim was not to profess a metaphysical determinism but to make grace alone the cause of salvation, excluding any contribution from human agency. this sounds like a false problem, solved long ago by augustine, who saw grace as acting through the free acts whereby sinners are enabled to respond to | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.508331 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 8 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.916938 |
determinism but to make grace alone the cause of salvation, excluding any contribution from human agency. this sounds like a false problem, solved long ago by augustine, who saw grace as acting through the free acts whereby sinners are enabled to respond to it. in any case, his metaphysics led luther into a view of freedom that has little to do with sin or grace. he argues that humans are unfree, not because of sin or the sovereignty of grace, but because god ’ s infallible foreknowledge entails that all things happen of necessity. the drama of sin and grace is flattened out and becomes one instance of the deterministic character of god ’ s rule. what led luther into this unbiblical blind alley? can luther ’ s philosophical determinism be cleanly separated from his theological concern? ‘ everything we do, everything that happens, even when it seems to us to happen mutably and contingently, in reality happens necessarily and immutably, if one considers god ’ s will... to happen contingently, however, means... not that the work itself happens contingently, but rather that it happens through a contingent and mutable will, such as is not found in god ’ ( wa 18, 615 - 16 ). here luther makes the same kind of distinctions as boethius and aquinas, leaving free play to contingency and putting the necessity of the divine will in the background. this ultimate necessity does not seem to affect the foreground realities of freedom and choice at all. luther could have presented the phenomenology of the enslaved will just as effectively without drawing on it at all. a short work on free will by the humanist scholar lorenzo valla, edited in 1518, had an influence on luther ’ s deterministic thinking. valla finds the medieval harmonization of omnipotence and free will to be shallow, and quotes romans 9 : 11 - 21 to show that the contradiction between them is unsolvable for human thought. ‘ god lays no necessity on us, nor does he rob us of freedom of will, when he hardens the one and has mercy on the other, for he does this in great wisdom and holiness. the basis for it, however, he has as it were stored away and hidden in a treasure chamber. ’ this is intended as a blow against the metaphysical complacency of boethius and others who serenely harmonized omnipotence and free will. humility | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.507711 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 9 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.918105 |
, he has as it were stored away and hidden in a treasure chamber. ’ this is intended as a blow against the metaphysical complacency of boethius and others who serenely harmonized omnipotence and free will. humility before the unsearchable divine mystery and trust in christ is the path that opens up when our thinking is thus left in the lurch by philosophy. yet valla ’ s own account of the abysses of predestination is more a metaphysical construction than a datum of biblical revelation. luther praised valla ’ s ‘ steadfastness and sincere zeal for the christian faith ’ ( wa 6, 183 ). melanchthon followed valla in his loci communes of 1521, in which he sharpened the deterministic ideas he received from luther, but in the last edition of the loci he declares that valla ’ s rejection of freedom and contingency comes from stoic philosophy and has no place in the church. melanchthon also rejects the ‘ stoic necessity ’ of the geneva theologians, which in calvin ’ s eyes meant that melanchthon had fallen away from biblical thought back into metaphysical rationalism. justification as a free act of divine mercy is an event that cannot be brought under a philosophical concept. for calvin, predestination and the eternal divine decree are the seal of the gratuity of this event, but many lutherans see theorizing about predestination as a falling back into the search for metaphysical grounds. luther himself, from 1528 on, played down the predestinarian excesses of de servo arbitrio. in a sermon of 1540 he says that to think that god does not give blessedness to everyone is despairing or godless. the believer looks to christ and find in him assurance of divine election. a preaching that undermines this confidence in a skeptical way must be problematic. karl barth ’ s judgment is telling : the thesis on the bondage of the will is not a decision for determinism : ‘ that this is not clear in luther ‘ s de servo arbitrio is the objection that one cannot fail to make to this famous text, and also to the conceptions of zwingli and calvin ’ ( kirchliche dogmatik iv / 2 : 559 ). the hidden god luther constructs, behind the phenomena of biblical revelation, a hidden story going on in the wings. he distinguishes between the god who is ‘ preached, revealed, | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.517698 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 10 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.919185 |
latter. in the name of a biblical literalism, luther overrides a basic principle of christian ontology, namely, that a good god can never create evil or be responsible for sin. luther may have felt that in doing so he was overcoming metaphysics in a liberating way, but in reality he instead becomes captive of a bad metaphysics. confusing evangelical assurance with metaphysical certitude, he accuses anyone who queries his understanding of biblical texts of being a pelagian and a doubter of divine omnipotence. any objection to the arbitrariness he ascribes to god is seen not a criticism of himself but as an offense against god or an attempt to replace the active, free, sovereign god of scripture with the cold and indifferent god of aristotle. luther sticks to his rigid metaphysics, to provoke and annoy the minds of those whose dislike of his doctrine is interpreted as a sign of rebellious resentment against god. the bible presents a god who is always working for the welfare and salvation of his creatures. luther succumbs to a bad metaphysics when he probes behind this revelation, seeking its ultimate ground in the hidden depths of the divinity, which may even contradict the revealed, gracious face of god. but when believers think of the ultimate source of revelation, they should follow the lines of the biblical word that point back to the gracious mystery of the loving father, rather than impose models of divine ineffability and incomprehensibility drawn from platonism, or worse, from ancient ideas of cruel and inevitable fate. the biblical sense of gracious divine mystery may seem vague and soft to the hard - headed philosopher, but in the case of god we are always learning the basic phenomena, and are never ready to overleap them to an ambitious speculation on the workings of the divine mind. schleiermacher ’ s location of god as the ‘ whence ’ of our existence, of whose absolute goodness it would be senseless to doubt, is ultimately saner and more biblical than the image of sinners caught in the hands of an inscrutable, unpredictable, and angry deity. biblical passages such as romans 9 - 11, which nourished so much predestinarian brooding from augustine on, must be interpreted in this perspective of indubitable divine goodness. dark pages such as john 8, which suggests that some are predestined by their very nature to be children of the devil, must be put aside, as we | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.537049 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c6e0deb9-efb1-43df-a3a0-361dc0effdf5> | 14 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:44.923679 |
is something that is institutionalized. and institutions require a kind of infrastructure. you need to be able to keep records, to, you know, amass information, and then you need to be able to find it. and the fact is that in the late medieval world, these kinds of tools are finally coming into existence once again. raz : surveillance, data collecting. murphy : surveillance would be another. keeping tabs on what people are doing, keeping tabs on what people are thinking. so finally, these tools emerge. we see them around us in our own day all the time. we take them for granted. but it ' s not very often that we ask when did governments, when did other institutions begin to have these tools. and the inquisition is a good way to begin to answer that question because it relied on them, you know, essentially. raz : what ' s fascinating is that certain techniques were so proscribed during the inquisition. you talked about these inquisition manuals, and you draw comparisons between those and modern manuals for interrogation. murphy : it ' s uncanny. there ' s an inquisitor named bernard gui. he compiled an inquisition manual, you know, for use by other inquisitors, and it became the basis of many such manuals. and if you look at that and then you look at modern manuals for, for instance, police forces or the military, you begin to see that there isn ' t a trick that is used nowadays that wasn ' t in use by the inquisition, you know, the psychology of interrogation, the ruses that people would use when you ' re questioning. there ' s, you know, there ' s nothing new under the sun when it comes to interrogation. raz : my guest is cullen murphy. he has written a new book. it ' s called " god ' s jury : the inquisition and the making of the modern world. " at one point in the book you draw a comparison between guantanamo and the spanish inquisition. can you explain that? murphy : guantanamo has been a symbol worldwide of many things, but one of them is interrogation gone wrong. and to me, it illustrates something that always happens when you try to put restrictions on a kind of behavior that is inherently problematic. the inquisition tried to put restraints on torture. the problem was that in the moment when people are trying to get information, those boundaries keep being pushed. people think, you know, one more turn of the screw will get us one more little piece of information, | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.535391 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:443d69ae-adc8-4324-b3a9-fb41f68a8ff8> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.005778 |
tried to put restraints on torture. the problem was that in the moment when people are trying to get information, those boundaries keep being pushed. people think, you know, one more turn of the screw will get us one more little piece of information, and that will justify this very messy procedure that, you know, we really wish we didn ' t have to resort to. so that happens again and again, and torture creeps and creeps and creeps. the same thing happened at guantanamo. if you look at the early history, the attempts to get information from detainees, you see the same kind of creep. so that is one thing that guantanamo illustrates where i think the parallel with the way in which the inquisition proceeded is very close. raz : towards the end of the book, you write that not only do all the ingredients for a modern day inquisition exist today but also that they are more prevalent than ever before. how so? murphy : well, this is a real worry of mine. there ' s one thing that every inquisition needs, and that is a person, people, who are possessed of an idea. they think they ' re in the right about something that they want everyone else to toe the line. and you see this in religion, you see this in totalitarian regimes, but that moral certainty isn ' t enough. you need to have something that sustains it that gives it life over time. and those things, like having a bureaucracy, having methods of surveillance, information technology, all of those things are much more advanced right now by an order of magnitude than they were centuries ago. and many of these things are, you know, more or less on cruise control. you know, we know what bureaucracies are like. they don ' t shrink. they expand. we know what surveillance is like. nowadays, it ' s done almost automatically every time you hit the keyboard on your computer or every time you walk by a camera on the street. and so my worry is what happens when you combine that idea of moral certainty with the kinds of tools that exist nowadays? you know, it does seem to me that in the wrong hands, the tools of repression are just more available and dangerous than they have been for a long time. raz : i should probably mention that you are a catholic and a practicing catholic. is that fair to say? raz : and as you point out, many accounts of the inquisition have been biased, either overly critical of the church or overly defensive. and understandably, the church | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.514205 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:443d69ae-adc8-4324-b3a9-fb41f68a8ff8> | 3 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.006737 |
post - traumatic stress disorder ( ptsd ) is an anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to a traumatic event or ordeal in which actual physical or emotional harm occurred or was threatened. events that can trigger ptsd include violent personal assaults, such as rape or mugging, natural or human - caused disasters, accidents, or military combat. ptsd can be extremely disabling. many people with ptsd repeatedly re - experience the ordeal in the form of flashback episodes, memories, nightmares, or frightening thoughts, especially when they are exposed to events or objects reminiscent of the trauma. anniversaries of the event can also trigger symptoms. people with ptsd also experience emotional numbness and sleep disturbances, depression, anxiety, and irritability or outbursts of anger. feelings of intense guilt are also common. most people with ptsd try to avoid any reminders or thoughts of the ordeal. ptsd is diagnosed when symptoms last more than one month. co - occurring depression, alcoholabuse, substance abuse, or another anxiety disorder is not uncommon. the likelihood of treatment success is increased when these other conditions are appropriately identified and treated as well. what are the risk factors for ptsd? what are the symptoms of ptsd? how is ptsd diagnosed? what are the treatments for ptsd? how can i reduce my risk of ptsd? what questions should i ask my doctor? what is it like to live with ptsd? where can i get more information about ptsd? - reviewer : rimas lukas, md - review date : 11 / 2012 - - update date : 11 / 26 / 2012 - | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.5006 | 326 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e3692c2d-180f-4343-9149-8adbe257de26> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.011480 |
in memory of john hope franklin ( 1915 - 2009 ) and in honor of black history month, this exhibit touches on four periods crucial to understanding the history of african americans in the united states, exploring their dimensions - in a necessarily brief manner - through the words of john hope franklin and the many forms of historical documentation in the collections of the rare book, manuscript and special collections library. through these displays, we can reflect on our past and at the same time, as dr. franklin so strongly urged us, look to the present for the means to free ourselves from injustice, fear, and hatred. " the writing of history reflects the interests, predilections, and even prejudices of a given generation. this means that at the present time there is an urgent need to re - examine our past in terms of our present outlook. " ( john hope franklin, from african american biography, volume 2, 1994 ) exhibit curated by paula jeannet mangiafico and janie morris, with support from the john hope franklin research center for african and african american history and culture : http : / / library. duke. edu / specialcollections / franklin / some material on this page may be protected by copyrights not held by the duke university libraries, all other material is copyright 2009 by duke university libraries. for complete information about use and reproduction of duke materials, please read our use and reproduction policy. | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.50832 | 283 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e6489912-1fd0-4238-aa91-710efc56c95b> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.032211 |
although perl remains a vibrant language with a fiercely loyal following, it has undergone many changes to keep up with new technologies and applications that were not anticipated when perl was first introduced in 1987. through its community - based development model, perl has kept up with changing times and remained fresh when other languages might have stagnated. internally, however, there have remained kinks and stumbling blocks that developers have needed to sidestep, long - abandoned features that have been maintained only for backwards compatibility, misdirected phrasings that have hindered more intuitive syntax structures, and a cacophony of modules that sometimes work well together, but occasionally don ' t. perl continues to have a strong following devoted to its development, but in the meantime, a group of core perl developers have begun working on perl 6, a complete rewrite of the perl language. while perl ' s creative philosophy and common - sense syntax are sure to remain in perl 6, everything else in the language is being re - examined and recreated. perl 6 essentials provides an overview of the current state of perl 6 for those who await its release. written by members of the perl 6 core development team, the book offers an explanation of the various stages of the project, with reference material for programmers who are interested in what changes are planned or who may want to contribute to the project. the book will satisfy their curiosity and show how changes in the language will make it more powerful and easier to use. perl 6 essentials is the first book that offers a peek into the next major version of the perl language. this book is essential reading for anyone interested in the future of perl. | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.543529 | 347 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:a6eadc48-bb5e-4fec-82c7-ca1428bff9ce> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.033959 |
add to phr a home blood pressure test allows you to keep track of your blood pressure at home. blood pressure is a measure of the force of blood inside an artery. a blood pressure measurement is taken by temporarily stopping the flow of blood in an artery ( usually by inflating a cuff around the upper arm ) and then listening for the sound of the blood beginning to flow through the artery again as air is released from the cuff. as blood flows through the artery, it can be heard through a stethoscope placed on the skin over the artery. blood pressure is recorded as two measurements. these two pressures are expressed in millimeters of mercury ( mm hg ) because the original devices that measured blood pressure used a column of mercury. blood pressure measurements are recorded as systolic / diastolic ( say " systolic over diastolic " ). for example, if your systolic pressure is 120 mm hg and your diastolic pressure is 80 mm hg, your blood pressure is recorded as 120 / 80 ( say " 120 over 80 " ). the general types of blood pressure monitors commonly available are manual and automatic. manual models are similar to those that your doctor might use to take your blood pressure. called a sphygmomanometer, these devices usually include an arm cuff, a squeeze bulb to inflate the cuff, a stethoscope or microphone, and a gauge to measure the blood pressure. blood pressure is displayed on a circular dial with a needle. as the pressure in the cuff rises, the needle moves clockwise on the dial. as the cuff pressure falls, the needle moves counterclockwise. electronic battery - operated monitors use a microphone to detect blood pulsing in the artery. you do not need to listen with a stethoscope. the cuff, which is attached to your wrist or upper arm, is connected to an electronic monitor that automatically inflates and deflates the cuff when you press the start button. the type of blood pressure monitor typically found in supermarkets, pharmacies, and shopping malls is an electronic device. ambulatory blood pressure monitoring ( abpm ) is another method that may be ordered by your doctor if other methods do not give consistent results. it is often used if there is a big difference between the blood pressure readings you get at home and your readings in your doctor ' s office. an ambulatory blood pressure monitor is a small device that is worn throughout the day, usually for 24 or 48 hours. the device takes your blood | subdomain_quantum_metrology | 0.517007 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:af31f9d2-dbc4-435b-b37f-755264137167> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.049719 |
| this document is available in : english castellano chinesegb deutsch francais nederlands turkce | by georges tarbouriech about the author : georges is a long time unix user. he loves gnustep and the tools this great framework provides. gorm and projectcenter, the gnustep rad tools rad stands for rapid application development. at the end of the 80 ' s, when nextstep was released, it came with an incredible tool, called interfacebuilder. used in conjunction with another tool, named projectbuilder, it allowed to build graphical applications in a flash. gnustep offers a free version of these tools, called gorm. app and projectcenter. app. from the computers prehistory, software development has been a great challenge. computers were quite big in size despite their very little power. they were quite expensive, not really numerous and developers were unable to use them as often as they wished since they had to share them with other people. then, researchers tried to find a way to make computers execute more than one task at a time to improve efficiency. obviously, they had to design and create programming languages from scratch, taking into account the poor resources of the available machines. thus, during the 60 ' s various new programming languages appeared : lisp, fortran, basic, algol68, bcpl, etc. next came the b language derived from the above mentioned bcpl, which soon became the c language. this last changed the world of programming. the object oriented ( smalltalk, objective c, c + +, etc ) languages appeared later, with the " graphical era ". in the 80 ' s some machines were providing graphical oses ( apple macintosh, commodore amiga, atari st, etc ) and the x window system was in the works. at the same time, a company was working on a gui for ibm os2, called presentation manager. before finishing that job, this company released its " own " gui for its dos, called... windos. the first two versions were hardly usable, but... the third one started it all. the mvai ( microsoft very artificial intelligence ) was born! that is, every user became a computer scientist. since then we have seen " great " applications written using excel or word and visual basic : - ( never mind! fortunately, long before we reached the above situation, nextstep was born and with it, came interface buider. this tool allowed you | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.505347 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:ea60f3c1-44b8-4f6f-ac25-4d4da6b4658a> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.075537 |
research is clear that there is an inextricable link between students ' emotional and mental health and their ability to learn. a student is not able to benefit from the educational program if the student is suicidal or if the student is preoccupied by concerns about someone who may be thinking about suicide. few events have greater impact than suicide upon students, parents, and staff. the student services and alternative programs branch staff is committed to providing technical assistance about effective youth suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention ( i. e., support and assistance for those affected by a completed suicide. ) suicide continues to be a leading cause of death in the united states and in maryland. according to the federal centers for disease control and prevention, suicide continues to be the third leading cause of death for youth in the united states and in maryland. during 2004, maryland lost 86 youth due to suicide. the results of the 2005 maryland youth risk behavior survey ( yrbs ) indicate that more than one in ten maryland high school students reported making a plan to commit suicide in the past twelve moths. the data demonstrate the importance of the statewide youth suicide prevention school program established in the annotated code of maryland § 7 - 503. the maryland program establishes a shared responsibility between educational programs at the state and local levels and community suicide prevention and crisis center agencies. the statewide program includes : - classroom instruction about warning signs of suicide and suicide prevention strategies - maryland youth crisis hotline at 1 - 800 - 422 - 0009 and local suicide and crisis hotlines - suicide intervention and postvention - data collection - teacher training | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.510275 | 320 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:cd5dbd6f-3c0a-4e41-a671-b4b218ba3af6> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.095098 |
i have to determine all values of h for which a is invertible and i really don ' t know what should be my first step ( if anyone could guide me through this that would be awesome. here ' s the matrix : 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 2h + 1 0 1 1 h you mean then that the matrix is i see two ways to do that. one is to use the fact that a matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is non - zero. the other is to row - reduce this to triangular form and use the fact that a matrix is invertible if and only if, reduced to triangular form, it has no zeros on its main diagonal. since a simple way of determining the determinant of a matrix is to reduce to triangular form, those are essentially the same. that will give you now you also need to note that 1 ) if you " add a multiple of one row to another " the determinant of a matrix 2 ) if you " multiply one row by a number ", the determinant of a matrix is multiplied by that number. 3 ) if you " swap two rows ", the determinant of a matrix is multiplied by - 1. since you have not " multiplied one row by a number ", the determinant of your original matrix must be the determinant of this matrix : that is,. the determinant of your original matrix is non - zero if and only if h is non - zero. | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.506847 | 313 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e55dfbfc-3621-4afe-a9fe-90f7b2eedff1> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.102544 |
a bag contains n discs, made up of red and blue colours. two discs are removed from the bag. if the probability of selecting two discs of the same colour is 1 / 2, what can you say about the number of discs in the bag? let there be r red discs, so p ( rb ) = r / n ( nr ) / ( n1 ), similarly, p ( br ) = ( nr ) / n r / ( n1 ). therefore, p ( different ) = 2r ( nr ) / ( n ( n1 ) ) = 1 / 2. giving the quadratic, 4r2 4nr + n2 n = 0. solving, r = ( nn ) / 2. if n is an odd square, n will be odd, and similarly, when n is an even square, n will be even. hence their sum / difference will be even, and divisible by 2. in other words, n being a perfect square is both a sufficient and necessary condition for r to be integer and the probability of the discs being the same colour to be 1 / 2. prove that n ( n + 1 ) / 2 ( a triangle number ), must be square, for the probability of the discs being the same colour to be 3 / 4, and find the smallest n for which this is true. what does this tell us about n and n ( n + 1 ) / 2 both being square? can you prove this result directly? | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.556558 | 302 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:c329b7b4-cde7-4cf9-96f3-2a0ef6253d5c> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.103963 |
human reproduction is a complex and remarkable process. women ’ s and men ’ s reproductive systems compliment one another, and each is essential for reproduction. there are two types of sex cells involved in human reproduction : the male ’ s sperm and the female ’ s egg. an egg that has been fertilized by a sperm cell grows and divides in a woman ’ s uterus ( womb ) throughout pregnancy until childbirth. the resulting child ’ s genetic makeup comes from the sperm and egg cells produced by the father and mother. the female reproductive system the female reproductive system includes the : - vagina — a muscular passage that connects the cervix with the external genitals - cervix — the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina - uterus — a hollow, muscular structure in which the fertilized egg implants and fetus grows during pregnancy - ovaries — two glands that produce eggs, as well as the female hormones estrogen and progesterone - fallopian tubes — two tubes that connect the ovaries with the uterus during a woman ’ s menstrual cycle, which usually lasts about 28 days, her body prepares for the possibility of a pregnancy. in the first half of the menstrual cycle, estrogen levels rise to thicken the lining of the uterus. at the same time, an egg begins to mature in one of the ovaries. around the midpoint of the menstrual cycle ( for example, day 14 of a 28 - day cycle ), a surge of luteinizing hormone ( lh ), which is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain, causes the mature egg to leave the ovary, a process called ovulation. in the second half of the menstrual cycle, fingerlike projections located at the opening of the fallopian tubes sweep the released egg into the tube toward the uterus. at the same time, rising levels of progesterone help prepare the lining of the uterus for pregnancy. if sperm cells are present at this time, the egg may become fertilized. if no sperm cells are present, the egg either dissolves or is absorbed into the body, no pregnancy occurs, hormone levels drop, and the thickened lining of the uterus is shed during the menstrual period. if fertilization does occur, the fertilized egg grows and divides until it becomes a blastocyst, which is a hollow ball of cells | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.516517 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:819ecd76-0b6b-4d94-851b-f56d206f7390> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.108403 |
rotary engines based on the wankel principle were developed with two fundamentally different approaches to cooling the rotor. mazda, audi, suzuki, ingersoll - rand and others used the oil - cooled rotor. it is an expensive, heavier and more complicated design, which achieved specific fuel consumption in the range of. 55 to. 6 lbs / hp hr. this is about 15 % to 20 % poorer than a typical four - stroke piston engine. the other approach taken by outboard marine corporation ( omc ), fichtel sachs and norton was to use the incoming air - fuel mixture ( “ charge ” ) to cool the rotor. this design was much lighter, less expensive and through the use of roller bearings and very low rotor cooling losses achieved a specific fuel consumption between. 45 and. 5 lb / hp hr, which was close to the 4 - stroke piston engine. historically all of the charge - cooled rotary engines that were developed used an arrangement where the fuel - air mixture passed through the rotor from one side to the other. this design cooled the rotor unevenly, which lowered engine rotor bearing life and increased friction between the rotor and the end housing. in 1985 moller international acquired the major rotary engine assets of omc. omc ’ s main product was the johnson and evinrude outboard engine and they were the world leader noted for their product ’ s reliability. omc reportedly spent over $ 200 million between 1970 and 1985 developing a number of different rotary engine models including a 530cc displacement model that went into volume production and used in a snowmobile as a test product. emissions requirements were one of the key motivators for this program. omc believed that they would not be able to meet the proposed emissions standards proposed for the late 1980 ’ s with their two - stroke engines and therefore chose to develop a lightweight low emission 4 - stroke rotary engine. fortunately for our company the proposed emission standards were not enacted as originally planned and omc stayed with their two - strokes, allowing moller international to purchase their rotary engine technology. since acquiring the omc charge - cooled rotary design, moller international has spent ~ $ 35 million on further development, testing and product integration efforts related to its rotary engine, preparing it for use in its aeronautical products as well as for use in a wide range of other suitable applications. freedom rotapower engine • high power to weight ratio - more than 2 hp per pound of installed weight in high - performance versions - compares with. 6 hp / lb. to 1 hp / lb. for 2 | subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics | 0.522468 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:aaa54d58-be49-464e-8163-4ab82ddf800b> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.128187 |
wide range of other suitable applications. freedom rotapower engine • high power to weight ratio - more than 2 hp per pound of installed weight in high - performance versions - compares with. 6 hp / lb. to 1 hp / lb. for 2 - strokes and. 3 hp / lb. to. 65 hp / lb. for 4 - stroke pistons. • high power to volume ratio - ( power output / volume ) > 100 hp per cubic foot of installed volume - compares with 36 hp / ft³ to 50 hp / ft³ for 2 - strokes and 10 hp / ft³ to 20 hp / ft³ for 4 - stroke piston engines. • few moving parts - moving parts - only 2 for single rotor engine. - compares to 7 parts for 2 - stroke and 25 parts for 4 - stroke piston with same nstantaneous output torque. • solid fuel economy - specific fuel consumption <. 45 lb. / hp - hr ~ ( stratified charge ). expect <. 4 lb. / hp - hr when both stratified charged and turbo - charged - compares to. 65 lb. / hp - hr for 2 - strokes and ~. 4 lb / hp - hr for the best 4 - stroke piston. • proven multi - fuel performer - demonstrated on gasoline, natural gas, alcohol and propane - spark - ignited diesel, kerosine and jet fuel • very low emissions levels - see emissions performance • enhanced energy at exhaust - exhaust temperatures > 1500 °f - acts like a naturally occuring thermal reactor - ideal for turbocharge / co - generation applications • low vibration levels - hard mounted engine can be used as part of the structure • modular design - stacking of rotors easily extends range of available power | subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics | 0.530701 | 350 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:aaa54d58-be49-464e-8163-4ab82ddf800b> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.131790 |
hilbert ' s building blocks investigating space curves to construct 3 - d forms i have been interested in the area of computer generated forms, mostly from the architectural viewpoint, for a long time. most recently i have been investigating fractals as a way of generating 3 - d forms. not having a lot of luck in getting results that could suggest reasonable 3 - d forms, i moved back to some earlier work i did in 2 - d with hilbert curves, spirolaterals, space filling curves, and recursive designs. the image above on the left is the space filling curve designed by the german mathematician david hilbert. the adjacent image shows the three line segment " generator " for the hilbert curve. the generator is connected to another generator by a connecting line segment. by definition, this type of curve will always remain in a two dimensional plane. if you break the generator into forward moves and turns, and then modify the angle of the turn, the lines segments will cross each other. this crossing enables the curve to trigger a move to another " level ". this enables the determination of the curve height. variations can be developed by using a turning angle other than 90 degrees. two such variations are shown below. the second part of the this investigation is the interpretation of the curve once it is generated. each of the line segments and their vertices can be interpreted in three dimensional, architectural terms : select one the above variations to view these interpretations individually and in combination. walls, each line segment is constructed as a vertical plane floors, for each set of line segments, the minimum and maximum extends are found and constructed into a horizontal plane floor blocks, the horizontal floor plane is constructed into a volume extended walls, walls are constructed from the bottom and the top, starting at their beginning level, extending either to the bottom or top columns, volumes are constructed at the vertices of the line segments and the floor blocks beams, volumes are constructed along each line segment at the wall the more i worked with these variations and their interpretations, the more sculptural the forms became, further studies will continue in both the sculptural and architectural form possibilities. the next set of forms will use spirolaterals and more generalized recursive curves for the initial form generation. the forms currently only exist in this digital studio. my next goal is to generate stl files of the forms to send to a rapid prototyping system. another possible direction would be to rewrite the generation software in autolisp for use within autocad r13. this would also | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.574764 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:543060ac-cdef-47ed-89cd-7d4f33b8db21> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.139804 |
the world ’ s largest producer of nickel and palladium, and alaska ’ s red dog mine is the world ’ s largest source of zinc. more record - beaters are set to break ground. last month, the nunavut environmental assessment agency gave the green light for the indian metals giant arcelormittal to dig an open pit iron - ore mine on 170 square kilometres of tundra at mary river on baffin bay, canada. the $ 4 billion project will be connected to a port in baffin bay by the world ’ s most northerly railway. the south - west coast, around kvanefjeld ( greenland ), probably holds the world ’ s second largest deposit of rare earth elements and huge reserves of uranium and zinc – all together valued at almost half - a - trillion dollars. last month, greenland minerals of perth, australia, announced plans to carry out a feasibility study. the project could keep miners busy for 100 years. it seems like only yesterday when we read about shortages of rare earths threatening computer development. receding sea ice is opening up the arctic to shipping. the north - east passage, linking the north atlantic to the pacific via the arctic waters north of russia, was open for five months in 2011. more than 30 ships passed through, including a 120, 000 - tonne russian gas tanker and nordic and japanese iron ore carriers taking arctic minerals to china. the shortcut to asia halves the shipping time from northern europe to china to roughly 20 days, and avoids pirate - infested shipping lanes in the indian ocean. russia expects a 40 - fold increase in shipping along the route by 2020. american analysts say it could be carrying 5 per cent of world ’ s shipping by 2050. bottom line : no one knows what the long term effects of global warming will be, and not knowing, no one can say whether on balance they will be beneficial or not. even the concept of “ on balance... beneficial ” is shaky. “ beneficial ” for whom and for what? even if we focus on “ beneficial for humans, ” are we talking about long term or short term? survival? life span? society? progress? happiness? is there something about global warming that will help humans to better health in the short term, but give us less ability to survive in the long term? will it assist tribal society at the expense of “ modern ” society? and what do we mean by “ progress ” and “ happiness ”? robert burns wrote : “... foresight may be vain | subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics | 0.514963 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:87059364-1dd3-46e7-9c01-def9f8b57421> | 3 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.165266 |
less ability to survive in the long term? will it assist tribal society at the expense of “ modern ” society? and what do we mean by “ progress ” and “ happiness ”? robert burns wrote : “... foresight may be vain : the best - laid schemes o ’ mice an ’ men, gang aft agley, ” and the longer we try to peer into the future, the more “ agley ” our best - laid schemes become. the universe and our world in it, are victims of chaos, where : “ small differences in initial conditions ( such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation ) yield widely diverging outcomes for chaotic systems, rendering long - term prediction impossible in general. ( wikipedia ) we can ’ t predict what volcanoes will erupt, nor what wars will be fought, nor the status of the stock market, nor the next coronal mass ejection, nor the next pandemic, nor scientific progress in a thousand areas. and we can ’ t predict the effects of global warming. at best, we can try to address our immediate problems and hope our efforts will bode well for the long term. we can and should try to reduce air, water and ground pollution. we can and should try to find cures for diseases. we can and should try to prevent wars and to make cars safer to drive, and to improve the education of our children and to explore the solar system and to save our forests. but, i suspect our efforts to reduce global warming are misplaced. we simply do not know what we are doing. global warming very well could be what saves the human species. rodger malcolm mitchell nine steps to prosperity : 1. eliminate fica ( click here ) 2. medicare — parts a, b & d — for everyone 3. send every american citizen an annual check for $ 5, 000 or give every state $ 5, 000 per capita ( click here ) 4. long - term nursing care for everyone 5. free education ( including post - grad ) for everyone 6. salary for attending school ( click here ) 7. eliminate corporate taxes 8. increase the standard income tax deduction annually 9. increase federal spending on the myriad initiatives that benefit america ’ s 99 % no nation can tax itself into prosperity, nor grow without money growth. monetary sovereignty : cutting federal deficits to grow the economy is like applying leeches to cure anemia. two key equations in economics : federal deficits – net imports = net private savings gross domestic product = federal spending + | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.522422 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:87059364-1dd3-46e7-9c01-def9f8b57421> | 4 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.166250 |
cobalamin is a family of complex molecules, consisting of a cobalt - containing tetrapyrrole ring and side nucleotide chains attached to the cobalt atom. 4 it is synthesized by anaerobic bacteria and is found in foods of animal origin ( e. g., fish, meat, dairy products, and eggs ), as well as fortified cereals. 5 – 7 the recommended daily allowance ( rda ) of vitamin b12 is 2. 4 μg per day ( mcg / day ) for persons over the age of 14 years. in the united states, the average daily adult dietary intake of vitamin b12 is about 5 mcg – 30 mcg, of which only 1 mcg – 5 mcg are effectively absorbed, given its complex absorption process. it is estimated that only 50 % of dietary vitamin b12 is absorbed by healthy adults. 7 defects at any step of the absorption process can cause cobalamin deficiencies of varying degrees ; 50 % – 90 % of cobalamin stores in the body ( 3 mg – 5 mg ) are located in the liver. these stores help delay, often for up to 5 years, the onset of clinical symptoms due to insufficient cobalamin absorption. dietary cobalamin is bound to animal proteins. in the stomach, hydrochloric acid ( hcl ) and pepsin are critical for the release of free cobalamin from the proteins. glycoproteins called r - proteins ( r ) secreted from salivary glands and parietal cells bind free cobalamin in the stomach. intrinsic factor ( if ), a weak binder of cobalamin in the presence of r, is also released by parietal cells in the stomach. in the duodenum, dietary - and bile - secreted cobalamin - r complexes are cleaved by pancreatic enzymes, and free cobalamin is then bound to if with more affinity. cobalamin – if complexes are taken up by endocytosis, by adhering to cubilin receptors located on the distal ileal mucosa. once inside the cell, cobalamin dissociates from if. free cobalamin is then bound to transporter proteins : transcobalamin ( tc ) i, ii, and iii, and transported to the liver. tc ii represents about 10 % of total transcobalamin and is the only cobalamin - transport protein that reaches target cell receptors. this biologically - active form of the vitamin | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.532136 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:4e0faf6f-8c4d-431f-a6cf-653988f334b7> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.206355 |
, can cause abnormal fatty - acid synthesis, affecting the neuronal membrane. 8 mma and hcy levels are elevated before any clinical manifestations of vitamin b12 deficiency and often precede low serum vitamin b12 levels. 5 neuropsychiatric symptoms usually precede hematologic signs and are often the presenting manifestation of cobalamin deficiency. 10 – 12 vitamin b12 deficiency definitions vary and usually rely on population statistics to establish normal serum - level thresholds ( normal range : 180 pg / ml – 900 pg / ml ). this can be problematic because individual metabolic requirements may vary, and active disease can be present despite a “ normal level. ” false - negative results can also be explained because vitamin b12 levels are altered by the concentration of its binding proteins, and radioimmunoassays may detect inactive forms of cobalamin that may mask tissue deficiencies of active cobalamin. studies have found that relying on the serum levels of vitamin b12 underestimated the prevalence of elevated metabolites that indicate tissue - deficiency by as much as 50 %. 13 as deficiency develops, serum values may be maintained at the expense of tissue cobalamin. thus, a serum - cobalamin value above the lower normal cutoff point does not necessarily indicate adequate cobalamin status. a deficiency spectrum ranging from subclinical metabolic abnormalities to clinical symptoms could be better delineated by measuring hcy and mma levels2, 4, 14, 15 or by measuring cobalamin bound to tc ii ( holo - transcobalamin ) levels, which represent the active form of the vitamin. 16, 17 a recent study in elderly persons ( n = 700 ) found holo - transcobalamin ( holo - tc ) to be the best predictor for determining cobalamin deficiency, when compared with other measures ( serum cobalamin, hcy, and mma ) and was recommended as the first - line measure in assessing cobalamin status, 18 but results have been inconsistent, 19 and further research is warranted. it is estimated that between 3 % and 40 % of older adults have vitamin b12 deficiencies, where lower rates are seen in the community and higher rates in institutional settings. 1, 8, 20 – 22 prevalence rates vary according to economic status, age, and dietary choices. 5, 23 in a multi - ethnic study, elderly white men had higher deficiency prevalence rates than elderly black or asian american women. 24 the elderly population is especially at risk for cobalamin deficiency, | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.5226 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:4e0faf6f-8c4d-431f-a6cf-653988f334b7> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.208602 |
vitamin b12 deficiency. a previous association has not been consistently documented, as some cohort studies have shown that low vitamin b12 level increases the risk for cognitive impairment or dementia, 65, 71 – 76 whereas other studies have not demonstrated an increased risk. 37, 76 – 84 the evidence is more consistent when hhcy is present, and vitamin b12 deficiency can lead to hhcy, a risk factor for cognitive impairment and dementia. 37 the reversibility of this dementia syndrome has also been questioned, given that studies reviewing large series of cases or decades of literature have yielded one and three cases of vitamin b12 reversibility, respectively. 39, 85 the evidence for response to treatment is better when pernicious anemia has been identified as the cause of vitamin b12 deficiency and it has been treated early in the course of the disease, before irreversible damage occurs. 37 we acknowledge that the severity and chronicity of symptoms, as well as comorbid conditions and adequacy of treatment, are all important factors affecting response and reversal of symptoms. current guidelines suggest assessing vitamin b12 levels in patients with cognitive impairment, or as part of a workup for dementia. we believe this remains a sound clinical judgment until newer evidence can clarify the issue, as vitamin b12 deficiency can lead to hhcy, a known risk factor for dementia. if vitamin b12 deficiency is diagnosed and treated early in the course of the disease, neuropsychiatric symptoms may be prevented or even reversed. the hallmark of delirium remains a fluctuating level of consciousness, with attention deficits. vitamin b12 deficiency has been associated with attention deficits, acute mental - status changes, and acute cognitive changes, with eeg abnormalities. 13, 86 case reports describe associations of vitamin b12 deficiency and delirium with or without other risk factors such as dementia and infection. 87, 88 in a prospective study of patients with mild - to - moderate dementia with low vitamin b12 levels that were supplemented, delirium risk was reduced significantly ; however, no long - term improvement was seen in cognition or behavioral problems. 89 screening for vitamin b12 deficiency should start by developing a clinical awareness of the population at risk. these include elderly persons, vegans, alcoholics, malnourished persons, and patients with gi pathology, neuropsychiatric symptoms, or autoimmune diseases. common suggestive laboratory findings include macrocytosis with or without anemia and hypersegmented neutrophil | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.51648 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:4e0faf6f-8c4d-431f-a6cf-653988f334b7> | 9 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.217958 |
the findings are published in today ' s issue of nature. " this calcium transporter really is an important key to understanding how the heart is regulated, " said dr. donald hilgemann, professor of physiology and senior author of the study. " at every beat, calcium in heart cells increases. and it ' s calcium that is the messenger to the heart to get it to contract. " we knew for a long time that ncx1 brings calcium into and out of heart cells by exchanging it for sodium. and in doing so it generates important electrical currents in the heart. the surprise is that this transporter dances more than just that old waltz from vienna. it knows salsa! " the research reveals two new modes of operation of ncx1. first, the membrane protein can move sodium into heart cells without moving calcium out. this mode generates an electrical current independent of calcium transport that contributes to excitation of the heart. the second mode is to move calcium into heart cells without generating any electrical current. this mode, dr. hilgemann said, may determine the calcium that remains in heart cells after each beat and thereby determines the strength of cardiac contraction over many beats. using so - called " giant membrane patch " techniques together with highly sensitive ion detection techniques, both developed and implemented by dr. hilgemann, ut southwestern researchers were able to determine precisely how ncx1 works as an ion exchanger, how many calcium and sodium ions move across the membrane, when they are exchanged, and, surprisingly, when they move together. " transporters move ions across membranes by grabbing hold of them and transferring the energy of one type of ion to another type, just one contact : amy shields ut southwestern medical center | subdomain_quantum_entanglement | 0.531537 | 345 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:ab36d3f8-3936-467d-9108-b249eccc0350> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.233578 |
expect a dramatic change, " he said. " these students started relatively empathetic and became more empathetic. " among the changes, participants in the simulation shifted their opinions about whether people who are poor attempt to get out of poverty ; whether they attempt to save money ; and whether they ' d rather work than be on welfare. in addition, their views on whether the poor have equal access to health care and whether the government does enough to help those who are poor, also shifted. they gained a better understanding of the fact that there are more children than adults living in poverty. in looking at the reflective papers the students wrote a week after the simulation, the researchers found that 65 of the 75 students who wrote papers described themselves as having gained greater insights into the lives of the poor as a result of the simulation. among the remaining students, seven reported no change in their opinions ( in some cases, they stated they already were empathetic to the poor ) and the responses of three students were ambiguous. " i began to understand and realize that it ' s not always a person ' s fault for being in a poverty - stricken lifestyle, " wrote one student. " just sitting in an environment of failure makes your own drive to succeed that much harder. " another student was surprised by the difficulty of assessing social services : " i knew very little about tanf ( temporary assistance for needy families ). i cannot imagine that everyone that is in need of help knows all about the programs available to them. " one finding the authors hadn ' t anticipated, based on previous studies that examined empathy, was the stress the participants felt as they inhabited the roles of those living in poverty. " the stress... was brought on entirely by my family ' s financial insecurity, " a student said. " i had little time to do anything other than go to work, run errands and pay the bills ; i barely saw my children or husband and never had the chance to relax. " " getting groceries, applying for tanf and food stamps and going to the quickcash all took so long to get accomplished, " wrote another. " i think that many people in poverty would feel like they were on a treadmill, not really getting anywhere. " " much of what students learn in the family resources class emphasizes the breadth of resources that are available, including time, space, and family and community support, in addition to the monetary and material goods we frequently think of, " nickols said. " part of what this simulation demonstrates is | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.500698 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:3e9ecdbe-a5c1-4273-a432-f573b9c5fd42> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.255442 |
uga researcher developing new vaccine to fight resurging mumps virus june 13, 2012print athens, ga. - mumps may seem like a disease of a bygone era to many people in the u. s. who, thanks to immunization programs, have been spared the fever, aches and characteristic swollen jawline of the once common viral infection. biao he, a university of georgia professor of infectious diseases and a georgia research alliance distinguished investigator in the college of veterinary medicine, worries that a new strain of the virus is spreading, and it could lead to the widespread reintroduction of mumps. now, thanks in part a $ 1. 8 million grant from the national institutes of health, he and his team are working on a new vaccine to stop it. although not typically a life - threatening disease, mumps can lead to serious health problems such as viral meningitis, hearing loss and pancreatitis ; and it can cause miscarriage during early pregnancy. vaccinations diminished the number of cases dramatically, and at one point it appeared that the u. s. was on pace to eradicate the disease. but two large outbreaks of the virus in 2006 and 2010 involving thousands of confirmed cases in the midwest and northeast put the hope of eradication on hold. he is concerned that the current vaccine, which has been in use since 1967, may be showing signs of weakness. " the virus is always evolving and mutating, and new viruses will emerge, " he said. " it ' s only a matter of time until the old vaccine we have doesn ' t work. " the current vaccine is commonly called the jeryl lynn strain and is named after the daughter of inventor maurice hilleman. it is based on a specific genotype of the mumps virus called genotype a. however, the 2006 and 2010 mumps outbreaks were caused by another strain, genotype g. even more troubling is that most of the people who contracted mumps during the 2006 and 2010 outbreaks had received the recommended two - dose vaccination in their early childhood, meaning that the virus was spreading even among the vaccinated population. " the question is : with this new genotype virus emerging in the vaccinated population, what do you do about it? " he said. some have suggested administering a third jeryl lynn vaccine to boost immunity later in life, but it is unclear if that approach would be successful. he suggests that modern scientific techniques have made the creation of some vaccines | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.529834 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:ab6ebd87-7c35-45e1-96b2-e9f2e063963e> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.259812 |
you do about it? " he said. some have suggested administering a third jeryl lynn vaccine to boost immunity later in life, but it is unclear if that approach would be successful. he suggests that modern scientific techniques have made the creation of some vaccines much easier, so producing a new mumps vaccine may be the most effective method of controlling the emerging threat. " in the past few years, we have taken advantage of genetic engineering, and my lab is particularly good at engineering viruses, " he said. " we can take a virus, look at its genetic sequence, take bits and pieces away and generate a new virus with less virulence that will work as a vaccine. " before the advent of genetic engineering, the process of creating a vaccine could be intensely laborious, as researchers would have to pass the virus through many generations of reproduction until they found a naturally occurring weakened virus. this process can take long periods of time, and there is little guarantee that the weakened virus will work as a vaccine. genetic engineering allows he ' s lab to produce an effective and safe vaccine much more quickly. vaccine safety became a topic of much discussion after british medical researcher andrew wakefield suggested that there was a link between the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine and autism. however, his claims were found to be fraudulent, and wakefield was barred from practicing medicine in the united kingdom. much of the fallout from the wakefield case remains, and some are still hesitant to have their children vaccinated, but he is insistent that administering vaccines to children is the safe and responsible thing to do. " the no. 1 issue for us in making a pediatric vaccine is safety, " he said. " so far our testing suggests we are on the right track. " once he and his laboratory have devised a safe, reliable method to create vaccines for genotype g, they can apply that knowledge to rapidly produce vaccines for the other 12 mumps genotypes currently circulating in populations throughout the world. health professionals were able to contain the outbreaks of 2006 and 2010, but he thinks that the large global population and ease with which people move from one location to another make humankind vulnerable to rapid disease spread. " it ' s almost like a small fire ; if it stays small, we can put it out, " he said. " but if conditions are right, and the wind begins to blow, the fire can take over. " research reported in this publication was supported by the national institutes of health under award number 1r01ai097368 - | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.505564 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:ab6ebd87-7c35-45e1-96b2-e9f2e063963e> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.260722 |
cool crop circles last year, quite a complex and elaborate 100ft diameter circle appeared overnight in a field of oil seed rape near silbury hill, wiltshire cool crop circles unseasonably warm and wet spring weather has seen many summer flowers appearing earlier than usual, and, surprisingly for so early in the year as things normally go, has sparked the crop circle creationists into early action. last year, quite a complex and elaborate 100ft diameter circle appeared overnight in a field of oil seed rape near silbury hill, wiltshire, causing a bit of a stir, a fabulous floral creation of six interlocking ' petal ' like crescent shapes, the very first proper design of the season, according to expert lucy pringle. from petersfield in hampshire, lucy is a founder member of the centre for crop circle studies, widely known as an international authority on crop circles, having carried out research over several years into both physiological and psychological effects on those visiting such installations. her research has revealed that there are measurable changes to hormone levels and brain activity in humans after coming into the vicinity of these creations, which have in past years included triangles, birds, complex 3 - d geometric shapes, as well as ahidden mathematical codes, such as that found in 2008 near wroughton, wiltshire, thought to represent the first ten digits of the pi number. a massive crop circle 200ft across appeared overnight close to the age - old topic of conversation amongst scholars, stonehenge, long thought of as a hot spot for this bizarre practice, being the tallest prehistoric man - made mound in europe, iand an obvious focal point. whilst there are indeed those who believe crop circles an entirely man - made phenomenon, others believe them caused by the magnetic field of the planet, while those out on the periphery think them the work of extra - terrestrial being trying to communicate. exactly how crop circles are created is still a mystery in many ways, and enthusiasts argue that not enough night hours exist in summer to allow humans to complete the complex creations. whatever the truth is, the rash of environmental art, of sorts, which gives farmers cause to feel frustration at the mindless destruction of good crop plants, is likely to always be a feature of the summer months. whether or not somebody ever manages to establish just how they are created remains to be seen, but i personally would not bet against the e. t. idea. the truth, as they say, is out there. | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.511745 | 495 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:05988006-d8aa-4d41-9537-bad952b27092> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.264497 |
as part of the wrap - up for this course, we ’ re looking back at some of the first things we wrote in june ( introduction to webtools, setting the stage, and guiding principles for tech use in the classroom ). i don ’ t know that my thinking / philosophy on using technology has changed dramatically in the past two and a half months. i was on - board with tech use in the classroom with the goal of improved learning and connection, and i was excited to try out some new tools and learn from a new and diverse group of educators. i still am. i do have a clearer picture of some specific tools that i ’ d like to implement this year in my classes, and i am happy to have made many new connections in my continually - expanding pln. what has changed for me is a renewed focus on the idea that the best web tools allow us to do something completely new. i find myself coming back to three points from jeff utecht ’ s article “ evaluating technology use in the classroom ” : - does the technology allow students to learn from people they never would have been able to without it? - does the technology allow students to interact with information in a way that is meaningful and could not have happened otherwise? - does the technology allow students to create and share their knowledge with an audience they never would have had access to without technology? [ my emphasis ] i ’ ve been focused primarily on the second bullet point ( which isn ’ t horrible ). if that ’ s all we do with new technology, it still represents movement in the right direction. i ’ ve made some progress on the third point ( through student blogging ), but i don ’ t think i ’ ve tapped into the full potential there. my students were very excited to keep track of their blog ’ s page views counter, and they broadened their readership by putting their new biology blog posts up on facebook. ( which, come to think of it, is actually a pretty significant step. i wonder if they were sharing any of their history essays, spanish translations, or math problem sets on fb? ) but i want to try to find some ways to have them interact with people outside of our classroom, outside of our state and country, if possible. that ’ s a new goal of mine for the year. lastly, we should recognize that we ’ re going to ask our students to jump into this whole using tech in the classroom in new ways thing along with us. they ’ ll get their own crash courses in web | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.517106 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:e142d9c7-e338-4fc4-999e-244bf7acc970> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.286631 |
first, the truth is that no one really knows why some products succeed and others don ’ t. as the purchasing of goods in the market done by multiple individuals whose decisions are often personal and multi - factorial, direct observation and dissection of behavior is nearly impossible. there are some theories, though ( largely from van den bulte, 2007 ). so that i don ’ t forget, and purely for my own benefit, here ’ s a breakdown : 1. people who buy early are different from those who buy late. for example, the people who sit in the cold waiting to buy the new iphone on the day it is released are vastly different from those who wait until the price drops 6 months later. it ’ s hard to tell who ’ s smarter. me, i like heat. ( see rogers, 2003. ) 2. there are market leaders that other people like to follow. people buy products because they want to imitate others, who might mostly be those who pick up on fads early, i. e. there are “ innovators ” and “ imitators. ” people who bought to iphone 1 ( what did that look like? ) early showed it to their friends, who bought one, too. ( see bass, 1969 ) 3. people buy products autonomously, because of influence from above, or because of peer influence. some people buy stuff caring little for anyone else. some people buy stuff because an authority said it was a good idea. some people buy stuff because their friends do. ( see riesman, 1950 and schor, 1998 ) 4. purchase decisions depend on social status. some people buy stuff because they want to emulate those higher on the social ladder than they are. similarly, those on top buy new stuff because they don ’ t want to fall behind or be unseated as a high profile consumer. some people tend to want to buy slightly more car than they can afford, so that they can feel more like those with more money than they have. the stratified nature of society, thus, perpetuates a system of striving to consume more beyond one ’ s means. this desire is, of course, endless. ( see simmel 1971 and burt 1987 ) 5. marketing is a two step process. ads are only effective at influencing behavior of leaders, who, in turn influence their followers. i call this the “ economist effect. ” only a few sad people ( such as myself ) read the british magazine, the economist. when | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.50163 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:13e68164-cf56-4b09-acc7-bd77d102458e> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.298060 |
ai and society 9 ( 1 ) : 29 - 42 ( 1995 ) | abstract | | this paper first illustrates what kind of ethical issues arise from the new information, communication and automation technology. it then argues that we may embrace the popular idea that technology is ethically neutral or even ambivalent without having to close our eyes to those issues and in fact, that the ethical neutrality of technology makes them all the more urgent. finally, it suggests that the widely ignored fact of normal responsible behaviour offers a new and fruitful starting point for any future thinking about such issues | | keywords | | no keywords specified ( fix it ) | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles thomas w. cooper ( 1998 ). new technology effects inventory : forty leading ethical issues. journal of mass media ethics 13 ( 2 ) : 71 – 92. william p. cordeiro ( 1997 ). suggested management responses to ethical issues raised by technological change. journal of business ethics 16 ( 12 - 13 ) : 1393 - 1400. robin s. dillon ( 2010 ). respect for persons, identity, and information technology. ethics and information technology 12 ( 1 ). patrick feng ( 2000 ). rethinking technology, revitalizing ethics : overcoming barriers to ethical design. science and engineering ethics 6 ( 2 ) : 207 - 220. walter maner ( 1996 ). unique ethical problems in information technology. science and engineering ethics 2 ( 2 ). david wright ( 2011 ). a framework for the ethical impact assessment of information technology. ethics and information technology 13 ( 3 ) : 199 - 226. richard de george ( 2006 ). information technology, globalization and ethics. ethics and information technology 8 ( 1 ). bernd stahl, richard heersmink, philippe goujon, catherine flick, jeroen van den hoven, kutoma wakunuma, veikko ikonen & michael rader ( 2010 ). issues, concepts and methods relating to the identification of the ethics of emerging icts. communications of the iima 10 ( 1 ) : 33 - 43. michael d. myers & leigh miller ( 1996 ). ethical dilemmas in the use of information technology : an aristotelian perspective. ethics and behavior 6 ( 2 ) : 153 – 160. chris gastmans ( ed. ) ( 2002 ). between technology and humanity : the impact of technology on health care ethics. leuven university press. nabila boukef charki ( forthcoming ) | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.522638 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:8c763965-35fb-4ea3-b013-7fce11c9b00d> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.301903 |
( 2 ) : 153 – 160. chris gastmans ( ed. ) ( 2002 ). between technology and humanity : the impact of technology on health care ethics. leuven university press. nabila boukef charki ( forthcoming ). toward an ethical understanding of the controversial technology of online reverse auctions. journal of business ethics. bernd carsten stahl, richard heersmink, philippe goujon, catherine flick, jeroen van den hoven, kutoma wakunuma, veikko ikonen & michael rader ( 2010 ). identifying the ethics of emerging information and communication technologies : an essay on issues, concepts and method. international journal of technoethics 1 ( 4 ) : 20 - 38. iordanis kavathatzopoulos ( 2003 ). the use of information and communication technology in the training for ethical competence in business. journal of business ethics 48 ( 1 ) : 43 - 51. mike cooley ( 1995 ). the myth of the moral neutrality of technology. ai and society 9 ( 1 ) : 10 - 17. matteo turilli, antonino vaccaro & mariarosaria taddeo ( 2012 ). internet neutrality : ethical issues in the internet environment. philosophy and technology 25 ( 2 ) : 133 - 151. sorry, there are not enough data points to plot this chart. added to index2010 - 08 - 30 total downloads1 ( # 277, 212 of 556, 837 ) recent downloads ( 6 months ) 0 how can i increase my downloads? | subdomain_quantum_cryptography | 0.517552 | 318 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:8c763965-35fb-4ea3-b013-7fce11c9b00d> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.302468 |
after higgs boson, scientists prepare for next quantum leapfebruary 13th, 2013 in physics / general physics a graphic distributed on july 4, 2012 by cern in geneva shows a representation of traces of a proton - proton collision measured in the search for the higgs boson. seven months after its scientists made a landmark discovery that may explain the mysteries of mass, europe ' s top physics lab will take a break from smashing invisible particles to recharge for the next leap into the unknown. seven months after its scientists made a landmark discovery that may explain the mysteries of mass, europe ' s top physics lab will take a break from smashing invisible particles to recharge for the next leap into the unknown. from thursday, the cutting - edge facilities at the european organisation for nuclear research ( cern ) will begin winding down, then go offline on saturday for an 18 - month upgrade. a vast underground lab straddling the border between france and switzerland, cern ' s large hadron collider ( lhc ) was the scene of an extraordinary discovery announced in july 2012. its scientists said they were 99. 9 percent certain they had found the elusive higgs boson, an invisible particle without which, theorists say, humans and all the other joined - up atoms in the universe would not exist. the upgrade will boost the lhc ' s energy capacity, essential for cern to confirm definitively that its boson is the higgs, and allow it to probe new dimensions such as supersymmetry and dark matter. " the aim is to open the discovery domain, " said frederick bordry, head of cern ' s technology department. " we have what we think is the higgs, and now we have all the theories about supersymmetry and so on. we need to increase the energy to look at more physics. it ' s about going into terra incognita ( unknown territory ), " he told afp. theorised back in 1964, the boson also known as the god particle carries the name of a british physicist, peter higgs. he calculated that a field of bosons could explain a nagging anomaly : why do some particles have mass while others, such as light, have none? that question was a gaping hole in the standard model of particle physics, a conceptual framework for understanding the nuts - and - bolts of the cosmos. one idea is that the higgs was born when the new universe cooled after the big bang some 14 billion years ago. it | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.592624 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:d348472a-a0ad-45b4-ac28-b6f820112b17> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.311106 |
gaping hole in the standard model of particle physics, a conceptual framework for understanding the nuts - and - bolts of the cosmos. one idea is that the higgs was born when the new universe cooled after the big bang some 14 billion years ago. it is believed to act like a fork dipped in honey and held up in dusty air. most of the dust particles interact with the honey, acquiring some of its mass to varying degrees, but a few slip through and do not acquire any. with mass comes gravity — and its pulling power brings particles together. supersymmetry, meanwhile, is the notion that there are novel particles which are the opposite number of each of the known particle actors in the standard model. this may, in turn, explain the existence of dark matter — a hypothetical construct that can only be perceived indirectly via its gravitational pull, yet is thought to make up around 25 percent of the universe. at a cost of 6. 03 billion swiss francs ( 4. 9 billion euros, $ 6. 56 billion dollars ), the lhc was constructed in a 26. 6 - kilometre ( 16. 5 - mile ) circular tunnel originally occupied by its predecessor, the large electron positron ( lep ). that had run in cycles of about seven months followed by a five - month shutdown, but the lhc, opened in 2008, has been pushed well beyond. " we ' ve had full operations for three years, 2010, 2011 and 2012, " said bordry. " initially we thought we ' d have the long shutdown in 2012, but in 2011, with some good results and with the perspective of discovering the boson, we pushed the long shutdown back by a year. but we said that in 2013 we must do it. " unlike the lep, which was used to accelerate electrons or positrons, the lhc crashes together protons, which are part of the hadron family. " the game is about smashing the particles together to transform this energy into mass. with high energy, they are transformed into new particles and we observe these new particles and try to understand things, " bordry explained. " it ' s about recreating the first microsecond of the universe, the big bang. we are reproducing in a lab the conditions we had at the start of the big bang. " over the past three years, cern has slammed protons together more than six million billion times. five billion collisions yielded results deemed worthy of further research and data from only | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.632713 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:d348472a-a0ad-45b4-ac28-b6f820112b17> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.313862 |
in a lab the conditions we had at the start of the big bang. " over the past three years, cern has slammed protons together more than six million billion times. five billion collisions yielded results deemed worthy of further research and data from only 400 threw up data that paved the road to the higgs boson. despite the shutdown, cern ' s researchers won ' t be taking a breather, as they must trawl through a vast mound of data. " i think a year from now, we ' ll have more information on the data accumulated over the past three years, " said bordry. " maybe the conclusion will be that we need more data! " last year, the lhc achieved a collision energy level of eight teraelectron volts, an energy measure used in particle physics — up from seven in 2011. after it comes back online in 2015, the goal is to take that level to 13 or even 14, with the lhc expected to run for three or four years before another shutdown. the net cost of the upgrade is expected to be up to 50 million swiss francs. cern ' s member states are european, but the prestigious organisation has global reach. india, japan, russia and the united states participate as observers. ( c ) 2013 afp " after higgs boson, scientists prepare for next quantum leap. " february 13th, 2013. http : / / phys. org / news / 2013 - 02 - higgs - boson - scientists - quantum. html | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.597761 | 311 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:d348472a-a0ad-45b4-ac28-b6f820112b17> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.314899 |
the dialogue. according to him, the dialectical discussion on the one and the many ( ta alla ) reveals the first divine principles of all things. with the exception of the commentary on the cratylus, of which only a selection of notes from the original commentary is preserved, the exegetical works of proclus have a clear structure. they divide the platonic text in different lemmata or cited passages, discussing first the doctrine exposed in the particular section ( pragmata, later called theoria ), next commenting on the formulation of the argument ( called lexis ) [ see festugiere 1963 ]. whereas modern scholars usually accept a development in plato ' s thought and distinguish between an early, middle, and late plato, the neoplatonists take the platonic corpus as the expression of a divinely inspired and unitary philosophical doctrine. this enables them to connect different platonic dialogues into one system and to see numerous cross - references within the platonic oeuvre. what may seem to be contradictions between statements made in different dialogues, can be explained by different pedagogical contexts, some dialogues being rather maieutic than expository, some elenctic of the sophistic pseudo - science, some offering a dialectical training to young students. a neoplatonic commentary offers much more than a faithful interpretation of an authoritative text of plato. plato ' s text gives the commentator an opportunity to develop his own views on the most fundamental philosophical questions, the first principles, the idea of the good, the doctrine of the forms, the soul and its faculties, nature, etc. as was said, the two culminating dialogues, the timaeus and the parmenides, offer together a comprehensive view of the whole of platonic philosophy. since the whole philosophy is divided into the study of intelligibles and the study of things within the cosmos – and quite rightly so, as the cosmos too is twofold, the intelligible and the sensible, as timaeus himself will say in what follows ( timaeus 30c ) – the parmenides comprehends the study ( pragmateia ) of the intelligibles and the timaeus the study of things within the cosmos. for the former teaches us all the divine orders and the latter all processions of things within the cosmos. ( in tim. i 12. 30 – 13. 7 ) the interpretation of the parmenides thus prepares the way for the platonic theology, offering the systematic structure for a | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.5195 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 6 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.448678 |
divine orders and the latter all processions of things within the cosmos. ( in tim. i 12. 30 – 13. 7 ) the interpretation of the parmenides thus prepares the way for the platonic theology, offering the systematic structure for a scientific demonstration of the procession of all the orders of gods from the first principle. as proclus explains at theol. plat. i 2, p. 9. 8 – 19, the platonic theology falls into three parts ( after a long methodological introduction ). the first part ( theol. plat. i 13 – 29 ) is an investigation into the common notions ( koinai ennoiai ) of the gods as we find them in plato ' s dialogues : it is a treatise on the divine names and attributes. the second part ( theol. plat. ii – vi ), which is incomplete, unfolds in a systematic way the procession of the divine hierarchies, from the one, that is the first god, to the ‘ higher kinds, ’ i. e., angels, daimones, and heroes, while the third part, which is altogether missing, was supposed to deal with the individual hypercosmic and encosmic gods. before presenting his own views, proclus usually critically evaluates the opinions and interpretations of his predecessors. in this respect, his commentaries are a rich and indispensible source for the history of middle and neo - platonism. thus, in his commentary on the timaeus proclus reports and criticizes the views of atticus, numenius, longinus, plotinus, porphyry, iamblichus, theodorus of asine and many others, ending usually in full agreement with the explanation of his master syrianus. besides, in explaining plato ' s text, proclus frequently seeks confirmation of his exegesis in the chaldaean oracles or the orphic tradition. as syrianus ( see helmig 2009 ), proclus is often very critical of aristotle and refutes his criticism of plato ' s views. he is certainly not an advocate of the “ harmony of plato and aristotle, ” which became the leading principle of the alexandrian commentaries ( of ammonius and simplicius ). proclus notes significant differences between the two philosophers in epistemology ( theory of abstraction vs. learning as recollection ), metaphysics ( first principle, theory of forms, theory of universals ), physics | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.512344 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 7 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.449885 |
simplicius ). proclus notes significant differences between the two philosophers in epistemology ( theory of abstraction vs. learning as recollection ), metaphysics ( first principle, theory of forms, theory of universals ), physics ( plato ' s timaeus vs. aristotle ' s physics ), political philosophy ( aristotle ' s criticism of plato ' s republic ), and language ( cratylus vs. de interpretatione ). according to proclus, plato is not only far superior to aristotle in his theology ( as only plato ascended beyond the intellect to posit the one as the ineffable principle of all things ), but in all other philosophical disciplines, where we owe to him all important discoveries. whereas the peripatetics were accustomed to defend the superiority of aristotle over plato with reference to his impressive physical project, proclus considers the latter as inferior to the great achievement of plato in the timaeus ( see steel 2003 ). aristotle ' s natural philosophy is the work of a zealous admirer, a disciple who tried to be better than the master : it seems to me that the excellent aristotle emulated the teaching of plato as far as possible when he structured the whole investigation about nature. ( in tim. i 6. 21 – 24 ) following plato, aristotle explains in his physics the general principles of natural things : form, matter, nature, the essence and principles of movement, time and place ; again taking inspiration from the timaeus, he studies in other works the specific principles of the distinct regions of the physical world, thus in the de caelo the celestial and the sublunary realm, and in on generation and corruption and in meteorologica the sublunary realm. in this domain, it cannot be denied, aristotle did much more than his master. according to proclus, however, he developed the subject ‘ beyond what is needed ’. the same remark must be made about aristotle ' s extensive zoological research. whereas plato limited himself in the timaeus to an analysis of the fundamental principles of all living organisms, aristotle gave most of his attention to the material components of animals and scarcely, and only in few cases, did he consider the organism from the perspective of the form. plato, on the contrary, when explaining the physical world, never got lost in a detailed examination. when trying to determine proclus ' profile as a philosopher, one has to keep in mind that platonists were not keen on introducing new elements into the plato | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.526002 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 8 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.450916 |
the contrary, when explaining the physical world, never got lost in a detailed examination. when trying to determine proclus ' profile as a philosopher, one has to keep in mind that platonists were not keen on introducing new elements into the platonic doctrine. they despised innovation ( kainotomia ). yet it cannot be denied that neoplatonic philosophy differs considerably from what we read in plato ' s dialogues. there is also overwhelming evidence for continual discussions in the school on the right interpretation of plato or on certain doctrinal points ( such as the transcendence of the one, or the question whether the soul wholly descended from the intelligible world ). in order to evaluate proclus ' originality, one ought to compare his views with those of the neoplatonists before him, such as plotinus, porphyry, iamblichus, and syrianus. only with regard to plotinus is this possible to a great extent, because we still have the full corpus of plotinus ' writings. proclus certainly admired the first ‘ founder ’ of the new platonism and even devoted a commentary to the enneads, of which, alas, we have only some fragments. he shared plotinus ' views on the three principal hypostases the one, the intellect and the soul, and often uses language inspired by his reading of plotinus, as in his description of the union of the soul with the ineffable one. yet on many points, he is very critical of plotinus, pointing to contradictions, rejecting provocative views such as the thesis that one is cause of itself ( causa sui ), the doctrine of the undescended soul, or the identification of evil with matter. another radical difference from plotinus ( and porphyry ) is the importance attributed to theurgy for the salvation of the soul and the authority of chaldaean oracles. as said before, it is very difficult to mark off proclus ' originality with regard to his teacher syrianus, the only predecessor he never criticizes. of the literary production of the latter, we have only his commentary on aristotle ' s metaphysics. it is possible that most of syrianus ' courses on plato never were published, but were continued and further worked out by proclus himself. we have, however, the commentary on the phaedrus by hermeias, who was sitting together with proclus, in syrianus ' course. one gets the impression that | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.559505 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 9 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.451914 |
were continued and further worked out by proclus himself. we have, however, the commentary on the phaedrus by hermeias, who was sitting together with proclus, in syrianus ' course. one gets the impression that syrianus was very interested in orphic theogony, whereas for proclus the chaldaean oracles are more authoritative when developing a platonic theology. but here again, it is difficult to compare as we do not possess proclus ' own commentary. is proclus after all then not so original, but only an excellent teacher and wonderful systematizer of the new platonic doctrines which became dominant in the school since iamblichus on? we shall never know, and it is after all not so important when assessing the philosophical merits of his works. to praise proclus ' philosophical achievements, marinus devotes in life of proclus one chapter to the discussion of the doctrines we owe to him ( § 23 ). surprisingly, for all his admiration for the master, he can only enumerate a few innovative doctrines ; and they are of such a minor importance that we shall not even discuss them in this article. in late antiquity, aristotle ' s metaphysics was considered to be a theological work, because aristotle investigates in this treatise the first principles of all being. this discipline may be called theology, because the principles of beings and the first and most perfect causes of things are what is most of all divine. ( asclepius, in metaph. 4. 1 – 3 ) indeed, there is precedent for this in aristotle himself, for in metaphysics vi, 1, 1026a15ff, he classifies “ first philosophy, ” or metaphysics, as theology. proclus himself often uses the term ‘ theology ’ in this metaphysical sense for the study of the first ( ‘ divine ’ ) principles of all things. his elements of theology can in fact be considered an introduction to his metaphysics. the work is a concatenated demonstration of 217 propositions, which may be divided into two halves : the first 112 propositions establish the one, unity without any multiplicity, as the ultimate cause of reality and lay down basic metaphysical concepts / structures such as causality, participation, the relation of wholes to parts, infinity, and eternity. the second half deals with the three kinds of true causes within reality recognized by proclus : gods ( which he calls henads or “ unities, ” see below ), intellects | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.504518 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 10 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.453235 |
relation of wholes to parts, infinity, and eternity. the second half deals with the three kinds of true causes within reality recognized by proclus : gods ( which he calls henads or “ unities, ” see below ), intellects, and souls. this elaborate metaphysical framework makes it possible for proclus to develop a scientific theology, i. e., a demonstration of the procession and properties of the different classes of gods. in what follows we will only discuss some characteristic features of proclus ' metaphysics ( see further steel 2011 ). on the whole, proclus ’ doctrine of first principles is a further development of plotinus ' innovative interpretation of platonic philosophy. with plotinus, proclus recognizes three fundamental levels of reality called ‘ hypostases ’ ( or self - subsistent entities ) : one, intellect, and soul. however, following a concern of his predecessor iamblichus for greater precision in the relationship and distinction between the one and intellect, proclus distinguishes between the intelligible being ( to noeton — what is the object of intellectual intuition ) and the intellective ( to noeron — what is intelligizing ), and introduces between both, as an intermediary level, the noeton - noeron ( what is being intelligized and intelligizing ). these three ontological levels thus correspond to the triad of being, life, and intellect, which already play an important role in plotinus ' and porphyry ' s speculations about the procession or ‘ emanation ’ of the intelligible world from the one, without, however, being hypostasized. since zeller ( influenced by hegel ) the application of the triadic structure to reality has been seen as the characteristic feature of proclus ' system, but see dodds 19632, pp. xxii and 220, on possible sources of the doctrine. although the distinction of aspects of reality as distinct hupostases and the multiplication of triads might suggest a loss of plotinus ’ intuition of the unity of reality, it is important to stress that each part of the triad of being, life and intellect, mirrors within itself their triadic relationship. this redoubled triadic structure must be understood as expressing an intrinsic and essential relation between successive levels of being. the intimate relation between being, life, and intellect is the origin of the basic structure uniting all causes to their effects, namely the relation of immanence, | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.605848 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 11 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.456437 |
ones that are participated in by something, are connected by means of “ the triad of triads ” ( elem. theol. § 23 ), the universal nature of the form can be safeguarded. proclus, however, also applies this principle to explain the most difficult problem facing neoplatonic metaphysics, namely, how to understand the procession of the manifold from the one. how can the one be wholly without multiplicity, when it must somehow be the cause of any and all multiplicity? the one remains in itself absolutely unparticipated ; the many different beings proceeding from it participate in a series of participated henads or unities ( gods ). according to some scholars it was iamblichus who introduced this innovative doctrine, others attribute it to proclus ' teacher syrianus. even if the doctrine does not originate as such from iamblichus himself, the existence of the divine henads somehow follows from his law of mean terms. this law states that “ every producing cause brings into existence things like to itself before the unlike. “ ( elem. theol. § 28 ). thus there are no leaps in the chain of being, but everything is linked together by similar terms. the henads fulfill this function, for as participated unities they bridge the gap between the transcendent one and everything that comes after it. the doctrine of the henads can thus be seen as a way of integrating the traditional gods of greek polytheistic religion into the neoplatonic metaphysics of the one. a. auxiliary and true causes. from middle platonism onwards, various attempts were made to integrate the aristotelian doctrine of causes within the platonic philosophy ( see steel 2003 ). in plato ' s work, it was argued, one can find the four types of causality that aristotle distinguishes, to wit formal, material, efficient, final, and, besides, the paradigmatic cause, which aristotle wrongly rejected. this system of causes ( with the addition of the instrumental cause as a sixth ) became standard in later neoplatonism. in his commentary on the timaeus, proclus observes that aristotle never rises to the proper level of causality. for the four causes, as aristotle understands them, can only be applied to the explanation of processes in the sublunary world. in the platonic view, however, the material and formal causes are only subservient or instrumental causes. those causes are in fact immanent in their effects and consti | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.562619 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 13 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.458750 |
applied to the explanation of processes in the sublunary world. in the platonic view, however, the material and formal causes are only subservient or instrumental causes. those causes are in fact immanent in their effects and constitutive elements of the thing they produce. as proclus asserts in prop. 75 of the elements of theology, “ that which exists in the effect is not so much a cause as an auxiliary cause ( sunaition ) or an instrument of the producer. ” causes in the proper sense must act upon their effects from outside, while transcending them. for a proper understanding of what the true causes are of all things, proclus argues, one must follow plato, who lifts us up to the level of the transcendent forms and makes us discover the creative causality of the demiurge and the finality of the good as the ultimate explanation of all aspirations. although aristotle also discusses efficient and final causes, he falls short of a true understanding of creative causality because he abandons the hypothesis of the forms. without the transcendent forms, there can be no explanation of the being of things, only an explanation of their movement and change. given aristotle ' s narrow understanding of nature, it must come as no surprise, proclus notices, that he admits of cases of ‘ spontaneous generation ’ in the sublunary realm, which again restricts the purport of efficient causality. moreover, because of his rejection of the demiurge ( and of the one ), aristotle is also forced to limit efficient causality to the sublunary realm. in fact, in his view there is no cause of existence of the celestial bodies or of the sensible world as a whole : they exist necessarily in all eternity. but, as proclus argues, such a position will force him to admit that the world has the capacity to constitute itself, which is absurd ( see below ). the neoplatonic concept of causality is therefore quite different from that of the peripatetics, even if both share the same terminology, such as final or efficient cause. aristotle ' s causes are primarily intended to explain how things move and change, come to be and cease to be, but also offer to explain what given things are. for the neoplatonists, generalizing a principle formulated in the philebus — “ that everything that comes to be comes to be through a cause ” ( 26e, cf. tim. 28a ) — causality | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.57281 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 14 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.459861 |
given things are. for the neoplatonists, generalizing a principle formulated in the philebus — “ that everything that comes to be comes to be through a cause ” ( 26e, cf. tim. 28a ) — causality is of much wider application than the explanation of change and motion, it is not only about what things are, but about what constitutes ( hupostatikos ) their being, and it can be, analogously, used to explain relations between all levels of being. thus we can say of the one that it is the cause of intellect, and of intellect that it is cause of soul. in the timaeus, however, the main interest is to understand what is the cause of the sensible world and all the cosmic beings : this is primarily the demiurge or creator of the world ( the one is not the ‘ creator ’ of intellect ). b. corporeal and incorporeal causes. according to the stoics only bodies and powers or qualities of bodies are capable of acting and being acted upon ( see steel 2002 ). the platonists often criticized the stoic view and pointed to what they thought were the many contradictions involved, in particular, in the materialistic explanation of psychic activities or dispositions such as virtues. they defended the opposite view : all forms of causality must ultimately be explained as emanating from incorporeal entities. proclus adopts plotinus ' view ( iv, 7 8a ), that only incorporeal beings can be causes in the strict sense, and includes it among the basic theorems of his metaphysics. see elem. theol. § 80 ( cf. theol. plat. i 14, p. 61. 23 – 62. 1 ) : every body has by its own nature the capacity to be acted upon, every incorporeal thing the capacity to act, the former being in itself inactive, the latter impassive ; but through association with the body, the incorporeal too is acted upon, just as bodies too can act because of the participation in incorporeal entities. in this proposition proclus first sets apart the corporeal and incorporeal as being active / impassible and passive / inactive respectively. however, the two realms are not absolutely separate from each other. the soul, which is an incorporeal substance, enters into association with the body and thus becomes itself, though only accidentally, subject to different passions | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.567046 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 15 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.461061 |
and passive / inactive respectively. however, the two realms are not absolutely separate from each other. the soul, which is an incorporeal substance, enters into association with the body and thus becomes itself, though only accidentally, subject to different passions. the body, on the contrary, may gain great profit from the association with the incorporeal. this is evident in the case of animated bodies, which owe all their vital activities to the presence of the soul in them. but also inanimate natural bodies acquire all capacities and powers from nature and its inherent logoi or organizing rational principles ( see steel 2002 ). c. the relation of cause to its effect. the relation between a cause and its effect is characterized by both similarity and dissimilarity. for every cause produces something that is similar to it, and every effect thus resembles its cause, though in a secondary and less perfect way. but in so far as the effect is really distinguished from its cause, it acquires its own characteristic form of being, which was not yet developed on the level of its cause. for this reason each thing can be said to exist in three manners ( elem. theol. § 65 ). first, it is in itself as expressing formally its own character ( kath ’ hyparxin ). second, it exists in a causal manner ( kat ’ aitian ) being anticipated in its cause. finally, it exists as being participated ( kata methexin ) by the next level of being, which is its effect. thus life is a property of a living organism as being participated by it. life characterizes the soul formally. life also exists qua form in the divine mind. finally, proclus stresses that the higher a cause, the more comprehensive it is, and the further its effects reach ( elem. theol. § 57 ). all things, including matter, which has in itself, apart from the forms existing in it, no ‘ being ’, participate in the one ; all beings participate in being ; all plants and animals participate in life ; all rational souls participate in intellect. proclus ' epistemology is firmly rooted in his theory of the soul. for proclus, souls as self - moving principles represent the lowest level of entities that are capable of reverting upon itself ( so called self - constituted beings [ authypostata ], see elem. theol. § 40 – 51 ). they are incorporeal, separable from bodies and ind | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.556721 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 16 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.462340 |
entities that are capable of reverting upon itself ( so called self - constituted beings [ authypostata ], see elem. theol. § 40 – 51 ). they are incorporeal, separable from bodies and indestructible / immortal ( elem. theol. § 186 – 7 ). yet, they are principles of life and of movement of bodies ( elem. theol. § 188 ). in accordance with proclus ' general metaphysical principles ( cf. above 3. 1 ), from the unparticipated soul - monad proceed different kinds of participated soul : divine souls, daemonic souls, human souls, souls of animals ). as with other platonists, proclus frequently discusses the vexed question as to why a soul would descend into a body at all ( ‘ fall of the soul ’ ) ( see dorrie / baltes ( 2002. 2 ) 163 – 218 ). moreover, the neoplatonist distinguishes between altogether three so - called vehicles ( ochemata ) of the soul. the rational soul is permanently housed in the luminous vehicle, while the non - rational soul is located in the pneumatic vehicle. by being incarnated in a human body, soul, or rather, the vegetative soul attains thus a ( third ) ‘ shell - like ’ vehicle. the theory of the different vehicles or the psychic ‘ astral body, ’ familiar nowadays from modern theosophic theories, fulfils several crucial functions in neoplatonic psychology : it explains ( a ) how an incorporeal soul can be linked to a body, ( b ) how souls can move in space, ( c ) how souls can be punished after death ( cf. plato ' s myths ), ( d ) where certain faculties of the soul such as imagination are located. proclus distinguishes between two kinds of vehicles, one mortal and the other immortal ( in tim. iii 236. 31 ff. and elem. theol. § 207 – 210 ). proclus also adheres to the platonic theory of transmigration, but argues that human souls never enter animal bodies as their constitutive forms. for only animal souls can be organizing principles of animal bodies. if some rational souls are ‘ degraded ’ in the next life and forced to live in an animal body because of their misdemeanour in this life, they are only ‘ relationally ’ ( schesei ) present to this | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.5608 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 17 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.463473 |
animal bodies. if some rational souls are ‘ degraded ’ in the next life and forced to live in an animal body because of their misdemeanour in this life, they are only ‘ relationally ’ ( schesei ) present to this animal body. proclus distinguishes between the following faculties of soul : sense perception, imagination ( phantasia ), opinion, discursive thought, and intellection. while sense perception and imagination belong to the non - rational soul, opinion forms the lowest level of rationality. the aim of epistemological ascent is to free oneself eventually from the lower psychic faculties, including the lower rational ones, in order to enjoy a state of pure contemplation. as with many other platonists, proclus ' epistemology is based on a theory of innate knowledge ( in accordance with the platonic dictum that ‘ all learning is recollection [ anamnesis ] ’ ). proclus refers to the innate contents of the soul as its reason - principles ( logoi ) or forms ( eide ). these innate reason - principles constitute the essence of soul. that is why they are called ‘ essential reason - principles ’ ( logoi ousiodeis ) ( steel 1997 ). the traditional translation reason - principles was chosen on purpose, because on an ontological level these same logoi serve as principles of all things. they are extended or unfolded images of the forms that exist in intellect ; and by means of them the world - soul with the assistance of nature brings forth everything. in other words, the psychic logoi are instantiations of platonic forms on the level of soul as are the logoi in nature and the forms immanent in matter. according to the fundamental neoplatonic axiom panta en pasin ( ‘ all things are in all things ’ ), forms exist on all levels of reality. but the logoi in soul also offer the principles of all knowledge and are the starting points of demonstration. at in parm. iv 894. 3 – 18 ( ed. steel ) proclus argues that only with reference to these notions within the soul predication is possible ( see helmig 2008 ), since they are universal in the true sense of the word. on the other hand, both transcendent platonic forms and forms in matter are not taken to be universals proper by proclus. the former are rather intelligible particulars, as it were, and cannot be defined ( steel | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.573075 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 18 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.467832 |
. on the other hand, both transcendent platonic forms and forms in matter are not taken to be universals proper by proclus. the former are rather intelligible particulars, as it were, and cannot be defined ( steel 2004 ), while the latter are strictly speaking instantiated or individualised universals that are not shared by many particulars ( see helmig 2008, cf. above 3. 1 – 2 ). for this reason, it does not make much sense to talk about ‘ the problem of universals ’ in proclus. it is another crucial assumption of proclus ' epistemology that all souls share the same logoi ( elem. theol. § 194 – 195 ). in terms of concept - formation this entails that psychic concepts, once they are grasped correctly, are universal, objective, and shareable ( see helmig 2011 ). moreover, if all souls share the same logoi, and these logoi are the principles of reality ( see above ), then by grasping the logoi souls come to know the true principles or causes of reality. already aristotle had written that to know something signifies to know its cause ( met. a 3, 983a25 – 26 and an. post. i 2, 71b9 – 12 ). in his commentary on plato ' s timaeus, proclus introduces an interesting distinction. taking his start from the problem of how we can recognise certain objects, he considers the example of an apple. the different senses tell us that there is something sweet, red, even, with a nice smell. and while common sense ( koine aisthesis ) can distinguish the different impressions of the special senses, only opinion ( doxa ) is capable of saying that the object there on the table is an apple. doxa is able to do this, because it has access to the innate logoi of the soul. however, as proclus explains ( in tim. i 248. 11 ff. ), opinion only knows the ‘ that ’ ( hoti ), that is, it can recognize objects. discursive thought ( dianoia ), on the other hand, also knows the ‘ why ’ ( dihoti ), that is, the causes of something. this distinction can also be rephrased in terms of concepts, implying a distinction between factual concepts that allow us to identify or recognise certain objects, and concepts that fulfil an explanatory role. on the whole, procl | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.57773 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 19 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.469461 |
something. this distinction can also be rephrased in terms of concepts, implying a distinction between factual concepts that allow us to identify or recognise certain objects, and concepts that fulfil an explanatory role. on the whole, proclus ' reading and systematisation of plato ' s doctrine of learning as recollection makes platonic recollection not only concerned with higher learning, since already on the level of object recognition we employ concepts that originate from the innate logoi of the soul ( helmig 2011 ). proclus argues at length that the human soul has to contain innate knowledge. therefore, one should not consider it an empty writing tablet, as aristotle does ( aristotle, de anima iii 4 ). he is wrong in asserting that the soul contains all things potentially. according to proclus, the soul contains all things ( i. e., all logoi ) in actuality, though due to the ‘ shock of birth ’ it may seem as if the soul has fallen to potentiality. at in crat. § 61, proclus asserts that the soul does not resemble an empty writing tablet ( agraphon grammateion ) and does not possess all things in potentiality, but in act. in eucl. 16. 8 – 13 expresses the same idea : “ the soul is not a writing tablet void of logoi, but it is always written upon and always writing itself and being written on by the intellect. ” as with his philosophy of mathematics, proclus presents a detailed criticism of the view that universal concepts are derived from sensible objects ( by abstraction, induction, or collection ). in the fourth book of his commentary on plato ' s parmenides and in the two prologues of the commentary on euclid we find the most comprehensive criticism of abstractionism in antiquity ( see helmig 2010 and 2011 ). proclus devoted three entire books or ‘ monographs ’ ( monobiblia ) to problems of providence, fate, free choice, and evil. the first treatise ( ten problems concerning providence ) examines ten different problems on providence that were commonly discussed in the platonic school. for proclus providence ( pronoia ) is the beneficent activity of the first principle ( the ‘ source of goods ’ ) and the gods ( henads ), who have their existence before intellect ( pro - nou ). one of the problems discussed is the question of how divine foreknowledge and human free choice can be reconciled. for if god | subdomain_quantum_mechanics | 0.619989 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 20 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.471224 |
’ ) and the gods ( henads ), who have their existence before intellect ( pro - nou ). one of the problems discussed is the question of how divine foreknowledge and human free choice can be reconciled. for if god knows not only past and present, but also future events, the outcome of future events is already pre - determined ( as god has a determinate knowledge of all things ), and hence there is no free choice for humans. proclus ' answer, which ultimately goes back to iamblichus, consists in applying the principle that the mode of knowledge is not conditioned by the object known but by the knower. in the case of gods, this entails that they know the contingent event in a non contingent manner, the mutable immutably. they have an undivided knowledge of things divided and a timeless knowledge of things temporal ( elem. theol. § 124, cf. de decem dub. § 6 – 8 ). proclus ' answer was later taken up by ammonius in his commentary on the de interpretatione ix and in boethius ' consolation of philosophy v 6 as well as in his commentary on the de interpretatione ix. the second treatise ( on providence fate and what depends on us ) replies to a letter of theodore, a former friend of proclus. in this letter theodore, an engineer, had defended with several arguments a radical determinism, thus entirely excluding free choice. before refuting theodore ' s arguments, proclus introduces some fundamental distinctions in order to solve the problems raised by his old friend. the first distinction is between providence and fate : providence is essentially a god, whereas fate is something divine, but not a god. this is because it depends upon providence and is as it were an image of it. ( de prov. § 14 ) the second distinction is that between two types of soul : the rational soul is separable from the body, the irrational resides in the body is inseparable from its substrate ; “ the latter depends in its being upon fate, the former upon providence ” ( de prov. § 15 ff. ). the third distinction concerns knowledge and truth : one type of knowledge exists in souls that are bound to the process of generation ; [ … ] another type is present in souls that have escaped from this place. ( de prov. § 3. 1 – 4. 3 ) these three distinctions taken together make it possible for proclus to ultimately reconcile providence, fate | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.519245 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 21 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.472742 |
generation ; [ … ] another type is present in souls that have escaped from this place. ( de prov. § 3. 1 – 4. 3 ) these three distinctions taken together make it possible for proclus to ultimately reconcile providence, fate, and free choice. in so far as we are rational agents and let ourselves being determined in our choices only by intelligible principles, we may transcend the determinism of fate to which we belong as corporeal beings. yet, our actions are integrated into the providential order, as we willingly obey the divine principles. the third treatise ( on the existence of evils ) asks why and how evil can exist if the world is governed by divine providence. proclus argues that evil does not have an existence of its own, but only a derivative or parasitic existence ( par - hypostasis, sc. on the good ) ( de mal. § 50 ). in order to exist in a proper sense, an effect must result from a cause which proceeds according to its nature towards a goal that is intended. [ … ] whenever an effect is produced that was not intended or is not related by nature or per se to the agent, it is said to exist besides ( para ) the intended effect, parasitically upon it, as it were. ( opsomer - steel 2003, 25 ) this is precisely the case with evils, which are shortcomings and mistakes. as a failure is never intended qua failure by an agent, but is an unfortunate by - effect of its action, so is evil qua evil never caused by a cause. therefore, proclus continues, it is better to call its mode of existence a parhupostasis, rather than a hupostasis, a term that belongs to those beings “ that proceed from causes towards a goal. ” parhupostasis or “ parasitic existence, ” on the contrary, is the mode of existence of “ beings that neither appear through causes in accordance with nature nor result in a definite end. ” evils are not the outcome of goal - directed processes, but happen per accidens, as incidental by - products which fall outside the intention of the agents. [ … ] therefore it is appropriate to call such generation a parasitic existence ( parhupostasis ), in that it is without end and unintended, uncaused in a way ( anaition pos ) and indefinite. ( de mal. § 50. 3 – 9, 29 – 31 | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.504159 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 22 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.473765 |
parasitic existence ( parhupostasis ), in that it is without end and unintended, uncaused in a way ( anaition pos ) and indefinite. ( de mal. § 50. 3 – 9, 29 – 31, transl. by opsomer - steel 2003 ) dionysius the areopagite adopted proclus ' views on evil in his work on the divine names. thanks to this adaptation proclus ' doctrine of evil had an enormous influence on the later medieval discussions on evil both in byzantium and in the latin west and dominated the philosophical debates on evil up to the 19th century. a theological physics although proclus composed a short ( presumably early ) treatise where he summarises aristotle ' s theory of movement ( elements of physics ), he does not understand physics primarily as the study of movement and change of natural phenomena, but rather seeks to connect these phenomena to their intelligible and divine causes ( physics as a kind of theology, in tim. i 217. 25 ). in the preface to his commentary on plato ' s timaeus proclus sets out to prove why plato ' s physics, as developed in the timaeus, is superior to natural science in the aristotelian sense ( see steel 2003 ). in proclus ' view plato ' s timaeus not only offers a physiologia, a science of nature in its many aspects, but also presents an explanation of the whole of nature by paying due attention to its incorporeal, divine causes : the natural world proceeds from the demiurge as the expression of an ideal paradigm and aims at the ultimate good. therefore, plato ' s physio - logy is also a sort of theo - logy : the purpose of timaeus will be to consider the universe, insofar as it is produced by the gods. in fact, one may consider the world from different perspectives : insofar as it is corporeal or insofar as it participates in souls, both particular and universal, or insofar as it is endowed with intellect. but timaeus will examine the nature of the universe not only along all those aspects, but in particular insofar as it proceeds from the demiurge. in that respect the physiology seems also to be a sort of theology, since also natural things have somehow a divine existence insofar as they are produced by the gods. ( in tim. i 217. 18 – 27 ) | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.571745 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 23 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.475385 |
the demiurge. in that respect the physiology seems also to be a sort of theology, since also natural things have somehow a divine existence insofar as they are produced by the gods. ( in tim. i 217. 18 – 27 ) before offering an explanation of the generation of the world, timaeus sets out the fundamental principles that will govern his whole explanation of the physical world ( tim. 27d5 – 28b5 ). as proclus observes, it is the task of a scientist to formulate at the start of his project the principles proper to the science in question, and not just to assume some general axioms. the science of nature too is based on specific axioms and assumptions, which must be clarified before we can move to the demonstration. in order to make phusiologia a real science, the philosopher must deduce his explanation, as does the geometer, from a set of fundamental propositions or axioms. if i may say what i think, it seems to me that plato proceeds here in the manner of the geometers, assuming before the demonstrations the definitions and hypotheses through which he will make his demonstrations, thus laying the foundations of the whole science of nature. ( in tim. i. 217. 18 – 27 ) starting from these fundamental propositions, proclus argues, plato deduces the different types of causality that are required for a truly scientific understanding of nature ( efficient, exemplary, and final cause ; see steel 2003 and above 3. 2 ). time and eternity proclus discusses eternity and time in his commentary on the timaeus and in propositions 53 – 55 of the elements of theology ( see steel 2001 ). aristotle had defined time as a “ measure of movement according to the before and after. ” therefore, anything measured by time must have a form of existence or activity in which a past and a future state can be distinguished. in fact, an entity in time is never wholly and simultaneously what it is, but has an existence extended in a process of before and after. opposed to it stands the eternal, which exists as a simultaneous whole and admits of no composition or change. “ there is no part of it, ” writes proclus, “ which has already subsisted and another that will subsist later, but as yet is not. all that it is capable of being, already possesses it in entirety without losing it or without accumulating ” ( elem. theol. § 52 | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.605528 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 24 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.476466 |
already subsisted and another that will subsist later, but as yet is not. all that it is capable of being, already possesses it in entirety without losing it or without accumulating ” ( elem. theol. § 52 ). one must distinguish the temporality of things in process from the time by which they are measured. temporal things participate in time, without being time. “ time exists prior to all things in time ” ( elem. theol. § 53 ). with iamblichus, proclus distinguishes absolute time, which is not participated in and exists ‘ prior ’ to all temporal things, from participated time, or rather the many participated times. the same distinctions must also be made regarding eternity. for eternity precedes as cause and measures the multiple eternal beings that participate in it. “ every eternity is a measure of things eternal, every time of things in time ; and these two are the only measures of life and movement in things ” ( elem. theol. § 54 ). to conclude, there are two measures of the duration of things. first there is eternity, which measures at once the whole duration of a being. second, there is time, which measures piecemeal the extension of a being that continually passes from one state to another. eternity can be seen as the prefiguration of time ; time as the image of eternity. each of them governs a separate sphere of reality, eternity the intelligible being, time the temporal ( corporeal and psychic ) world of change. notwithstanding the sharp distinction between the temporal and the eternal realm, there are beings that share in both eternity and time. as proclus notes in the corollary to elem. theol. § 55, “ of the things which exist in time, some have a perpetual duration. ” thus the universe as a whole and the celestial spheres in it are both eternal and temporal. they are eternal because they never come to existence in time and never will cease to exist. but they are temporal because they possess their being only through a process of change in a sequence of moments. the same holds true for the psychic realm : all souls are immortal and indestructible ; nevertheless, they are continually undergoing change. therefore, as proclus says, “ ‘ perpetuity ’ ( aidiotes ) is of two kinds, the one eternal ( aionion ), the other in time ; [ … ] the one having its being concentrated in a simultaneous whole | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.532079 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 25 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.477872 |
, as proclus says, “ ‘ perpetuity ’ ( aidiotes ) is of two kinds, the one eternal ( aionion ), the other in time ; [ … ] the one having its being concentrated in a simultaneous whole, the other diffused and unfolded in temporal extension ( paratasis ) ; the one entire in itself, the other composed of parts, each of which exists separately in a sequence of prior and posterior. ” ( elem. theol. § 55, trans. dodds, modified ). the eternity of the world against aristotle ' s critique in de caelo i 10, proclus defends the view that the cosmos is “ both eternal and generated ( genetos ). ” as a corporeal being, the universe cannot produce itself and maintain itself in being. it depends for its existence upon a superior cause, and it is for that reason “ generated. ” this does not prevent it, however, from existing for ever, in an infinite time. as we just saw, proclus distinguishes between what is eternal in an absolute sense ( the intelligible realm ) and what is eternal because it continues to exist for the whole of time, what boethius later called “ aevum ” in distinction from “ aeternum. ” as proclus notices, at the end of the physics ( 8. 10, 266a27 – 28 ), aristotle himself establishes that no body can possess from itself an unlimited power to exist. if the world exists eternally, it must have this power from an incorporeal principle. therefore, aristotle too is forced to admit that the world is somehow generated, though it continues to exist for eternity. for it always receives from its cause its infinite power and never possesses it at once as a whole, because it is limited. the world is eternal, because it has an infinite power of coming to be, not because it exists of infinite power ( in tim. i 252. 11 – 254. 18 ). this disagreement between plato and aristotle is ultimately due to a different view about the first principles of all things. aristotle denies the existence of platonic forms and therefore cannot admit an efficient or creative cause of the universe in the true sense of the word. efficient causality only concerns the sublunary world. the celestial bodies and the world as a whole have no efficient cause of their being, but only a final cause. from this misunderstanding about the first principles follow all the other views that distinguish aristotle from plato. one gets | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.530783 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 26 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.480383 |
concerns the sublunary world. the celestial bodies and the world as a whole have no efficient cause of their being, but only a final cause. from this misunderstanding about the first principles follow all the other views that distinguish aristotle from plato. one gets the impression, proclus says, that aristotle, because he could not grasp the first principle of all things - the one – has always to find an explanation of things on a lower level : whatever plato attributes to the one, aristotle attributes to the intellect : that it is without multiplicity, that it is object of desire, that it does not think of secondary things. whatever plato attributes to the demiurgic intellect, aristotle attributes to the heaven and the celestial gods. for, in his view, creation and providence come from them. whatever plato attributes to the substance of heavens [ sc. time ], aristotle attributes to their circular motion. in all these issues he departs from the theological principles and dwells upon the physical explanations beyond what is needed. ( in tim. i 295. 20 – 27 ) the celestial bodies and the place of the universe related to the eternity of the world is the question of the nature of the celestial bodies. aristotle argues in de caelo i 2 that the celestial bodies, which move with a natural circular motion, must be made of a simple substance different from the four sublunary simple bodies ( whose natural movements are in a straight line : up or down ). this ‘ fifth element, ’ which is by nature imperishable, is the ether. with this explanation aristotle seems to oppose the view plato defends in timaeus where it is said that the demiurge made the divine celestial bodies “ mostly out of fire ” ( 40a2 – 4 ). proclus admits that the heaven is composed out of the four elements with a preponderance of fire, but he insists that the elements are not present in the celestial bodies in the same mode as they exist in the sublunary bodies. therefore aristotle is right when he considers the heavens to constitute a fifth nature besides the four elements. “ for in the heavens the elements are not the same as they are here, but are rather the summits of them ” ( in tim. ii 49. 27 – 29 ). if one counts the whole heaven composed out of the best of the elements as one nature and adds to it the four sublunary elements, we may speak of five natures altogether. contrary to aristotle, proclus argues that the whole universe ( to | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.563398 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 27 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.481610 |
one counts the whole heaven composed out of the best of the elements as one nature and adds to it the four sublunary elements, we may speak of five natures altogether. contrary to aristotle, proclus argues that the whole universe ( to pan ) is in a place ( topos ). he can do this because his conception of place differs in many respects from aristotle ' s own. the latter defined place as “ the unmoved limit of the surrounding body ” ( physics iv 4, 212a21 – 22 ). from this it follows as a necessary corollary that the universe as a whole cannot be in a place, because there is simply nothing outside it. aristotle ' s definition, as we learn from simplicius ' and philoponus ' corollary on place, had been criticized by all later neoplatonists ( syrianus, proclus, damascius, simplicius, and philoponus ). it is notable that proclus ' own theory of place, as reported by simplicius, differs considerably from other neoplatonic theories in that he considered place an immaterial ‘ body ’, namely a special kind of immobile light. as emerges from proclus ' commentary on plato ' s republic, his theory took inspiration from the column of light mentioned at republic x, 616b. since the heavenly bodies were considered divine, because they are eternal and living beings, the study of the heavens was of special importance to neoplatonists. in the preface to his treatise on astronomical hypotheses ( a summary and evaluation of astronomical views of his time ), proclus makes it clear that his approach is based on plato ' s remarks on astronomy ( especially in the republic and in the laws ). he feels the need to go through the different theories, because one can observe a great disagreement among ancient astronomers on how to explain the different phenomena ( hyp. i § 33 ). fundamental to proclus ' approach is the distinction between two kinds of astronomy ( hyp. i § 1 – 3 ). the first kind contents itself with observing the heavenly phenomena and formulating mathematical hypotheses to explain them and make calculations and prognostics possible. this is the astronomy as practiced by the most famous astronomers before proclus ' time ( aristarchus, hipparchus, and ptolemy ). the second, which is developed by plato in the timaeus, and is confirmed by the tradition of the “ | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.568191 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 28 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.482597 |
astronomy as practiced by the most famous astronomers before proclus ' time ( aristarchus, hipparchus, and ptolemy ). the second, which is developed by plato in the timaeus, and is confirmed by the tradition of the “ chaldaeans and egyptians, ” investigates into the intelligible causes of heavenly movements. an example for this approach can be found in his commentary on plato ' s republic ( in remp. ii 227. 23 – 235. 3 ). there, proclus explains that the seemingly irregular movements of the planets ought not to be explained by means of ptolemy ' s complicated theory of excentric spheres and epicycles, but are rather due to the fact that the planets are moved by intelligent souls which express in the movements of their bodies “ the invisible powers of the forms ” ( 232. 1 – 4 ). yet proclus appreciates ptolemy ' s astronomy as long as it is seen only as a mathematical - mechanical construction making it possible to calculate and predict the positions of planets, and as long as it does not claim to have any real explanatory value. for the history of astronomy proclus ' astronomical hypotheses remains a most valuable document, since it represents one of the best introductions to ptolemy ' s almagest extant from antiquity and since it explains the most important ancient astronomical theories, in order finally ( in chapter seven of the work ) to evaluate them critically. proclus ' arguments also played an important role in the scientific discussion of the ptolemaic hypotheses in the 16th and 17th century. proclus ' distinctively non - empirical approach towards physics and astronomy also influences his philosophy of mathematics, which is set out in the two prologues to his commentary on the first book of euclid ' s elements. the first prologue deals with the mathematical sciences in general, while the second prologue focuses on geometry proper. proclus argues in great detail that the objects of mathematical sciences cannot be derived from sensible particulars by means of abstraction. because of the imperfect and deficient character of the sensible objects one cannot derive from them objects that are as perfect and as precise as mathematical objects are. therefore, mathematical objects reside primarily in intellect and secondarily in souls ( as logoi ). as universal concepts ( cf. 3. 2 ) we can grasp mathematical objects by means of recollection ( anamnesis ). since geometrical objects are not universal, but particulars, and since by definition they possess extension, | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.53766 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 29 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.483635 |
). as universal concepts ( cf. 3. 2 ) we can grasp mathematical objects by means of recollection ( anamnesis ). since geometrical objects are not universal, but particulars, and since by definition they possess extension, proclus argues that their place is human imagination ( phantasia ). imagination acts as a mirror and provides the mathematical objects which are projected into it by the soul with intelligible matter. by means of the latter geometrical objects gain extension and particularity. as with physics and astronomy, the ultimate aim of geometry is not the study of these extended, material objects. rather, geometry serves an anagogical task ( just as in plato ' s republic ), leading the soul upwards to a study of the true and unextended causes of geometrical objects in the divine mind ( in eucl. 54. 14 – 56. 22 ). relying on plato, theaetetus 176a - b late platonists saw the assimilation to god ( homoiosis theoi ) as the goal ( telos ) of philosophy. proclus was faithful to this ideal, as is attested by his biographer marinus ( life of proclus § 25 ). there was a fundamental discussion in late neoplatonism on how this assimilation to the divine was possible for humans. damascius ( in phaed. i § 172 westerink ) distinguishes two tendencies : plotinus and porphyry preferred philosophy, which makes us understand the divine principles of reality through rational explication, while others like iamblichus and his followers, syrianus, and proclus, gave priority to hieratic practice or theurgy ( theourgia, hieratike [ sc. techne ] ). their different evaluation of respectively theory and theurgy as means of salvation may be explained by their different views on the human soul and its possibilities of ascent to the divine realm. while plotinus and porphyry claimed that the superior part of the human soul always remains within the intelligible realm, in touch with the divine principles, and never completely descends into the body, iamblichus, followed by proclus, criticised such a view. the soul does indeed wholly descend into the body ( steel 1976, 34 – 51 ). hence the importance of theurgic rites established by the gods themselves, to make it possible for the human soul to overcome the distance between the mortal and the divine, which cannot be done through increasing philosophical understanding. in | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.583443 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 30 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.484543 |
1976, 34 – 51 ). hence the importance of theurgic rites established by the gods themselves, to make it possible for the human soul to overcome the distance between the mortal and the divine, which cannot be done through increasing philosophical understanding. in theol. plat. i 25, proclus expresses his great admiration for the power of theurgy, which surpasses all human knowledge. allegedly, neoplatonic theurgy originated with julian the theurgist, who lived in the time of emperor marcus aurelius. at first sight, theurgy seems to share many characteristics with magic ( theory of cosmic sympathy, invocations, animation of statues of gods and demons ), but it is, as far as we can judge from the extant sources, clearly different from it. in his de mysteriis iamblichus developed a theology of the hieratic rituals from platonic principles, which clearly sets them apart from the vulgar magical practices. while magic assumes that the gods can be rendered subservient to the magicians, platonic philosophers consider this impossible. according to plato ' s principles of theology ( republic ii and laws x ), the gods are immutable, unchangeable, and cannot be bribed by means of sacrifices. proclus ' views on theurgy ( of which only some fragments belonging to his treatise on hieratic art [ i. e., theurgy ] survived ) are fully in line with these fundamental platonic axioms. but how, then, does theurgy work? the theurgists take up an old belief, shared also by many philosophers, namely the natural and cosmic ‘ sympathy ’ ( sumpatheia ) pervading all reality. as with an organism, all parts of reality are somehow linked together as one. another way of expressing this idea is in the neoplatonic principle, going back at least to iamblichus, that everything is in everything ( panta en pasin ). according to proclus, all reality, including its most inferior level, matter, is directed upwards towards the origin from which it proceeds. to say it in the words of theodorus of asine, whom proclus quotes in his commentary on the timaeus ( i 213. 2 – 3 ) : “ all things pray except the first. ” as stated before ( cf. 3. 3 ), the human soul contains the principles ( logoi ) of all reality within itself. the soul | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.519899 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 31 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.485433 |
timaeus ( i 213. 2 – 3 ) : “ all things pray except the first. ” as stated before ( cf. 3. 3 ), the human soul contains the principles ( logoi ) of all reality within itself. the soul carries, however, also sumbola or sunthemata which correspond to the divine principles of reality. the same symbols also establish the secret correspondences between sensible things ( stones, plants, and animals ) and celestial and divine realities. thanks to these symbols, things on different levels ( stones, plants, animals, souls ) are linked in a ‘ chain ’ ( seira ) to the divine principle on which they depend, as the chain of the sun and the many solar beings, or the chain of the moon. of great importance in the rituals was also the evocation of the secret divine names. in his commentary on the cratylus, proclus compares divine names to statues of the gods used in theurgy ( in crat. § 46 ), pointing to the fact that also language is an important means in the ascent to the divine. proclus evokes the platonic background of his theurgical beliefs, namely his theory of love ( eros ) as expressed in the symposium and the phaedrus, in his treatise on hieratic art : just as lovers move on from the beauty perceived by the senses until they reach the sole cause of all beautiful and intelligible beings, so too, the theurgists ( hieratikoi ), starting with the sympathy connecting visible things both to one another and to the invisible powers, and having understood that all things are to be found in all things, established the hieratic science. ( trans. ronan, modified ) in the wake of an article of anne sheppard ( 1982 ), scholars usually distinguish between three kinds of theurgy in proclus. the first kind, as described in the above quoted treatise on hieratic art, was mainly concerned with animating statues ( in order to obtain oracles or to evoke divine apparitions ) or, in general, with activities related to physical phenomena or human affairs ( influencing the weather, healing illnesses etc. ) ( see life of proclus § 28 – 29 ). as emerges from our sources, it is this kind of theurgy that involved much ritualistic practice, including hymns and prayers. the second kind of theurgy makes the soul capable of ascending up to the level of the hypercosmic gods and the | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.556326 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 32 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.486523 |
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and the foundations of cosmology in late antiquity, the middle ages and renaissance, th. leinkauf, and c. steel ( eds. ), ( series : ancient and medieval philosophy, i 34 ), leuven : leuven university press, pp. 163 – 193. - – – –, 2008, “ proclus on the mirror as metaphor of participation, ” in miroir et savoir. la transmission d ' un theme platonicien, des alexandrins a la philosophie arabo - musulmane, d. de smet, m. sebti, and g. de callatay ( eds. ), leuven : leuven university press, pp. 79 – 96. - – – –, 2010, “ proclus, ” in the cambridge history of late ancient philosophy, l. p. gerson ( ed. ), cambridge : cambridge university press [ forthcoming ]. - tarrant, h., and baltzly, d. ( eds. ), 2006, reading plato in antiquity, london : duckworth. - trouillard, j., 1982, la mystagogie de proclos, paris : les belles lettres. - van den berg, r. m., 2008, proclus ' commentary on the cratylus in context. ancient theories of language and naming, ( series : philosophia antiqua, 112 ), leiden – boston : brill. - van liefferinge, c., 1999, la theurgie : des ‘ oracles chaldaiques ’ a proclus, ( series : kernos. supplement, 9 ), liege : centre international d ' etude de la religion greque antique. - van riel, g., 2000, pleasure and the good life. plato, aristotle and the neoplatonists, ( series : philosophia antiqua, 85 ), leiden – new york – koln : brill. - watts, e. j., 2006, city and school in late antique athens and alexandria, ( series : the transformation of the classical heritage, 41 ), berkeley : university of california press. - westerink, l. g., j. trouillard, and a. p. segonds, 1990, prolegomenes a la philosophie de platon, ( series : collection des universites de france ), paris : les belles lettres | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.545339 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 55 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.527533 |
j. trouillard, and a. p. segonds, 1990, prolegomenes a la philosophie de platon, ( series : collection des universites de france ), paris : les belles lettres. - whittaker, j., 1975, “ the historical background of proclus ' doctrine of the authypostata, ” in de jamblique a proclus, h. dorrie, ( series : fondation hardt. entretiens tome, 21 ), geneve : vandœuvres, pp. 193 – 230 [ reprint in : studies in platonism and patristic thought, ( series : variorum reprints ), london : aldershot, 1984, xvi. how to cite this entry. preview the pdf version of this entry at the friends of the sep society. look up this entry topic at the indiana philosophy ontology project ( inpho ). enhanced bibliography for this entry at philpapers, with links to its database. - bibliography proclus – dwmc, university of leuven. - editions and translations proclus – dwmc, university of leuven. - repertoire des sources philosophiques antiques ( cnrs – paris ). - search on proclus at the open library. - w. j. hankey, french neoplatonism in the 20th century, in animus 4 ( 1999 ). the authors would like to thank radek chlup ( prague ), antonio luis costa vargas ( berlin ), and sabrina lange ( berlin ) for comments. | subdomain_quantum_gravity | 0.514497 | 332 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:b4bac2db-2f3f-46ab-a7e5-e1af870b6e7a> | 56 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.531082 |
june 22, 1976. north atlantic. at 21 : 13 gmt a pale orange glow behind a bank of towering cumulus to the west was observed. two minutes later a white disc was observed while the glow from behind the cloud persisted. high probability that this may have been caused by interferometry using 3 - dimensional artificial scalar wave? fourier expansions? as the interferers. marine observer. 47 ( 256 ), apr. 1977. p. 66 - 68. " unidentified phenomenon, off barbados, west indies. " august 22, 1969. west indies. luminous area bearing 310 degrees grew in size and rose in altitude, then turned into an arch or crescent. high probability that this may have been caused by interferometry using artificial scalar wave? ( ( fourier expansions. ) ) marine observer. 40 ( 229 ), july, 1970. p. 107 - 108. " optical phenomenon : caribbean sea ; western north atlantic. " mar. 20, 1969. caribbean sea and western north atlantic. at 23 : 15 gmt, a semicircle of bright, milky - white light became visible in the western sky and rapidly expanded upward and outward during the next 10 minutes, dimming as it expanded. high probability that this may be caused by interferometry using artificial scalar wave? fourier expansions?. marine observer, 40 ( 227 ), jan. 1970. p. 17 ; p. 17 - 18. 7b. 21 - electricity 13. 06 - triple currents of electricity 14. 35 - teslas 3 6 and 9 ( ( 16. 04 - nikola nikola tesla describing what electricity is ) ) 16. 07 - electricity is a polar exchange 16. 10 - positive electricity 16. 16 - negative electricity - russell 16. 17 - negative electricity - tesla 16. 29 - triple currents of electricity ( ( figure 16. 04. 05 and figure 16. 04. 06 - nikola nikola tesla and lord kelvin ) ) part 16 - electricity and magnetism tesla - electricity from space what electricity is - bloomfield moore page last modified on wednesday 19 of may, 2010 05 : 23 : 05 mdt | subdomain_quantum_optics | 0.596627 | 431 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:5ff0ec8a-893b-4fc8-b51a-53a907c3402b> | 0 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.533499 |
thirds throughout the world. nowadays, in the advanced countries, the share is about 2. 5 percent - - eleven million people out of 430. 6 in the rest of the world, agricultural workers still account for almost half the labor force, with a world total of some 1. 3 billion workers ( 775 million in china and india alone ). such a massive transfer of labor, one of the key features of modern economic growth in the past two centuries, was made possible by a dramatic increase in product per worker. in short, agriculture is an outstanding success story. its achievements have been outshone by the even faster growth of industry and services, but the latter would have been almost impossible if the workers had not had sufficient food to eat. the aim of this book is to describe this success, and to understand its causes. chapter 2 illustrates the peculiarities of agriculture. its production depends on the environment : soil, climate, and the availability of water have always determined what peasants could grow, how much they had to work, and how much they could obtain from their efforts. these constraints have been relaxed in recent times, without totally disappearing. the factor endowment, and notably the amount of land per agricultural worker, determines the intensity of cultivation. the combined effects of the environment and the factor endowment have created long - lasting and area - specific patterns of land use, crop mix, and techniques ( " agricultural systems " ). the next three chapters present the main statistical evidence, loosely arranged in a production - function framework. chapter 3 deals with the long - term trends in output ( which has always been growing ), relative prices ( increasing in the first half of the nineteenth century, then roughly constant or slowly declining ), and world trade in agricultural products ( increasing quite fast before 1913 and again after 1950 ). the focus then shifts to the proximate causes of this growth, the increase in the use of factors ( chapter 4 ) and productivity growth ( chapter 5 ). historians have a fairly clear idea about the long - run change in factors. the total agricultural work force remained roughly constant all over the world, with the notable exception of western settlement countries ( north america, australia, argentina, and so on ) during settlement process - - that is, until the beginning of the twentieth century. the stock of capital grew fast beginning in the late nineteenth century, as machines substituted labor. although this conventional wisdom is not exactly wrong, it is, however, inspired a bit too much by the experience of the western world. the growth of land stock has been much | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.534447 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:7ffbb7a5-2719-4bd6-88dd-6ff4df0f21b3> | 1 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.548441 |
capital grew fast beginning in the late nineteenth century, as machines substituted labor. although this conventional wisdom is not exactly wrong, it is, however, inspired a bit too much by the experience of the western world. the growth of land stock has been much more geographically widespread and has lasted for longer than is commonly assumed. agricultural capital consists mainly of building, irrigation works, and the like, and thus it increased slowly but steadily throughout the period. the real process of mechanization started only in the 1950s, and the agricultural work force has gone on growing in absolute terms. thus, the growth of inputs ( extensive growth ) was the major cause of worldwide growth in agricultural production until the 1930s, but after world war ii, it slowed down. consequently, most of the big increase in total output in the past half - century has been achieved thanks to the growth in total factor productivity. the available estimates, surveyed in chapter 5, suggest that its growth has been increasing over time and that it has been faster in " advanced " countries than in ldcs. in the " advanced " countries, productivity growth has accounted for the whole of the increase in agricultural output. contrary to a common view, productivity growth has been faster in agriculture than in the rest of the economy, including manufacturing. chapter 6 focuses on the main source of this great achievement, technical progress. it starts by describing the main innovations, and then focuses on the process of their adoption. as in the rest of the economy, innovations are adopted when profitable, and profitability ultimately depends on the expected productivity gains and on factor endowment and factor prices. however, as the chapter argues, a standard neoclassical model cannot explain all the features of technical progress in agriculture. agricultural innovations depend on the environment and entail a high level of risk, and many of them yield little or no financial rewards to the inventor. these features call for a greater role of the state, both in the production and the diffusion of innovations. chapters 7, 8, and 9 deal with the institutional framework of agricultural production. " institutions " is a fairly vague word, which resists all attempts at a general definition. chapters 7 and 8 deal with property rights on labor and land, markets for goods and inputs ( labor, land, capital ), and agricultural co - operatives. chapter 7 is, to some extent, a general introduction to these issues and to the approaches of economists and historians to institutions. it discusses how institutions work and how they might affect the performance of agriculture. chapter 8 describes the main changes - - the creation of property rights | subdomain_quantum_field_theory | 0.531095 | 512 | HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu | <urn:uuid:7ffbb7a5-2719-4bd6-88dd-6ff4df0f21b3> | 2 | 0.5 | 2025-12-19T11:31:45.549550 |
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