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Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins of King' s College were personal friends, which influenced subsequent scientific events as much as the close friendship between Crick and James Watson. Crick and Wilkins first met at King' s College and not, as erroneously recorded by two authors, at the Admiralty during World War II. ... | on the X- ray crystallography |
of proteins. X- ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X- ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules. 1949– 1950. Crick taught himself the mathe... | on DNA, Crick and Watson |
produced and showed off an erroneous first model of DNA. Their hurry to produce a model of DNA structure was driven in part by the knowledge that they were competing against Linus Pauling. Given Pauling' s recent success in discovering the Alpha helix, they feared that Pauling might also be the first to determine the s... | Perutz later published what had |
been in the progress report, and suggested that nothing was in the report that Franklin herself had not said in her talk( attended by Watson) in late 1951. Further, Perutz explained that the report was to a Medical Research Council( MRC) committee that had been created to" establish contact between the different groups... | The key problem for Watson |
and Crick, which could not be resolved by the data from King' s College, was to guess how the nucleotide bases pack into the core of the DNA double helix. Another key to finding the correct structure of DNA was the so- called Chargaff ratios, experimentally determined ratios of the nucleotide subunits of DNA: the amoun... | theory, modelling and experimental results( |
albeit mostly done by others) to achieve their goal. The DNA double helix structure proposed by Watson and Crick was based upon" Watson- Crick" bonds between the four bases most frequently found in DNA( A, C, T, G) and RNA( A, C, U, G). However, later research showed that triple- stranded, quadruple- stranded and other... | DNA model, especially Brenner who |
subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology. According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of ... | the amino acids. He also |
explored the many theoretical possibilities by which short nucleic acid sequences might code for the 20 amino acids. During the mid- to-late1950s Crick was very much intellectually engaged in sorting out the mystery of how proteins are synthesised. By 1958, Crick' s thinking had matured and he could list in an orderly ... | Crick had little direct interaction |
with Franklin herself. They were, however, aware of her work, more aware than she herself realised. Watson was present at a lecture, given in November 1951, where Franklin presented the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, and discussed the position of the phosphate units on the external part of the molecule. ... | 1) her 1951 seminar, attended |
by Watson, 2) discussions with Wilkins, who worked in the same laboratory with Franklin, 3) a research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of Medical Research Council- supported laboratories. Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories. Crick and Watson felt that they had be... | subject at the moment which |
we can tackle easily because people have so many religious beliefs and until we have a more uniform view of ourselves I think it would be risky to try and do anything in the way of eugenics... I would be astonished if, in the next 100 or 200 years, society did not come round to the view that they would have to try to i... | that it was important that |
evolution by natural selection be taught in schools and that it was regrettable that English schools had compulsory religious instruction. He also considered that a new scientific world view was rapidly being established, and predicted that once the detailed workings of the brain were eventually revealed, erroneous Chr... | the origins of the genetic |
code. In 1966, Crick took the place of Leslie Orgel at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin of life. Crick speculated about possible stages by which an initially simple code with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the more complex code used by existing organisms. At that time, proteins were th... | offered it then to Crick, |
who also refused. In 1976, Crick took a sabbatical year at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. Crick had been a nonresident fellow of the Institute since 1960. Crick wrote," I felt at home in Southern California." After the sabbatical, Crick left Cambridge to continue working at the Salk ... | sketch in the BBC TV |
programme" That Was The Week That Was" with the Nobel Prizes being referred to as' The Alfred Nobel Peace Pools'. Francis Crick Medal and Lecture. The Francis Crick Medal and Lecture was established in 2003 following an endowment by his former colleague, Sydney Brenner, joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiolog... | warships carrying their principal batteries |
of carriage- mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks( with further smaller carriage- mounted guns usually carried on the forecastle and quarterdeck of the vessel). The term was generally used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle, although early line- of- battle ships were frequently referred to as f... | could provide, the term soon |
came to apply less exclusively to any relatively fast and elegant sail- only warship. In French, the term" frigate" gave rise to a verb–" frégater", meaning' to build long and low', and to an adjective, adding more confusion. Even the huge English could be described as" a delicate frigate" by a contemporary after her u... | crew lived, and was in |
fact placed below the waterline of the new frigates. The typical earlier cruiser had a partially armed lower deck, from which it was known as a' half- battery' or" demi- batterie" ship. Removing the guns from this deck allowed the height of the hull upperworks to be lowered, giving the resulting' true- frigate' much im... | their quarter decks and forecastles( |
the superstructures above the upper deck). In 1778 the Carron Iron Company of Scotland produced a naval gun which would revolutionise the armament of smaller naval vessels, including the frigate. The carronade was a large calibre, short- barrelled naval cannon which was light, quick to reload and needed a smaller crew ... | Sail." Constitution" and her sister |
ships and were created in a response to deal with the Barbary Coast pirates and in conjunction with the Naval Act of 1794. Joshua Humphreys proposed that only live oak, a tree that grew only in America, should be used to build these ships. The British, wounded by repeated defeats in single- ship actions,respondedtothes... | in 1832, the frigate landed |
a party of 282 sailors and Marines ashore in the US Navy' s first Sumatran expedition. Frigates remained a crucial element of navies until the mid-19th century. The first ironclads were classified as" frigates" because of the number of guns they carried. However, terminology changed as iron and steam became the norm, a... | scantlings) as the corvette, allowing |
manufacture by yards unused to warship construction. The first frigates of the( 1941) were essentially two sets of corvette machinery in one larger hull, armed with the latest Hedgehog anti- submarine weapon. The frigate possessed less offensive firepower and speed than a destroyer, but such qualities were not required... | roughly mid- way in size |
between cruisers and destroyers. This was similar to the use of the term" frigate" during the age of sail during which it referred to a medium- sized warship, but it was inconsistent with conventions used by other contemporary navies which regarded frigates as being smaller than destroyers. During the 1975 ship reclass... | the need for the frigate |
to close with unknown sub- surface threats, and using fast helicopters to attack nuclear submarines which may be faster than surface warships. For this task the helicopter is equipped with sensors such as sonobuoys, wire- mounted dipping sonar and magnetic anomaly detectors to identify possible threats, and torpedoes o... | frigates to be used by |
the French Navy. At the moment, the program consists of five ships, with commissioning planned from 2023 onwards. In the German Navy, frigates were used to replace aging destroyers; however in size and role the new German frigates exceed the former class of destroyers. The future German s will be the largest class of f... | family, Franco served in the |
Spanish Army as a cadet in the Toledo Infantry Academy from 1907 to 1910. While serving in Morocco, he rose through the ranks to become brigadier general in 1926, aged 33, becoming the youngest general in Spain. Two years later, Franco became the director of the General Military Academy in Zaragoza. As a conservative a... | in Spanish history remains controversial, |
as the nature of his dictatorship changed over time. His reign was marked by both brutal repression, with tens of thousands killed, and economic prosperity, which greatly improved the quality of life in Spain. His dictatorial style proved highly adaptable, which enabled wide- sweeping social and economic reform, while ... | officers, the Naval Academy admitted |
no new entrants from 1906 to 1913. To his father' s chagrin, Francisco decided to try the Spanish Army. In 1907, he entered the Infantry Academy in Toledo. At the age of fourteen, Franco was one of the youngest members of his class, with most boys being between sixteen and eighteen. He was short and was bullied for his... | 1920, Lieutenant Colonel José Millán |
Astray, a histrionic but charismatic officer, founded the Spanish Foreign Legion, on similar lines as the French Foreign Legion. Franco became the Legion' s second- in- command and returned to Africa. In the Rif War, on 24 July 1921, the poorly commanded and overextended Spanish Army suffered a crushing defeat at Annua... | and the army deserted Alfonso |
XIII and the King decided to leave the country into exile, giving way to the Second Spanish Republic. Although Franco believed that the majority of the Spanish people still supported the crown, and although he regretted the end of the monarchy, he did not object, nor did he challenge the legitimacy of the republic. But... | Republican Party' s Alejandro Lerroux |
to do so. Despite receiving the most votes, CEDA was denied cabinet positions for nearly a year. After a year of intense pressure, CEDA, the largest party in the congress, was finally successful in forcing the acceptance of three ministries. The entrance of CEDA in the government, despite being normal in a parliamentar... | 1934 is unforgivable. The argument |
that Mr Gil Robles tried to destroy the Constitution to establish fascism was, at once, hypocritical and false. With the rebellion of 1934, the Spanish left lost even the shadow of moral authority to condemn the rebellion of 1936.” At the start of the Civil War, López Ochoa was assassinated. Some time after these event... | is not the road to |
socialism or communism but to desperate anarchism without even the advantage of liberty". On 23 February Franco was sent to the Canary Islands to serve as the islands' military commander, an appointment perceived by him as a" destierro"( banishment). Meanwhile, a conspiracy led by General Mola was taking shape. Interes... | who soon called themselves the" |
Nationalists", controlled a third of Spain; most naval units remained under control of the Republican loyalist forces, which left Franco isolated. The coup had failed in the attempt to bring a swift victory, but the Spanish Civil War had begun. The revolt was remarkably devoid of any particular ideology. The major goal... | Navy had remained in control |
of the Republic and were blocking the Strait of Gibraltar. He requested help from Benito Mussolini, who responded with an unconditional offer of arms and planes; in Germany Wilhelm Canaris, the head of the" Abwehr" military intelligence, persuaded Hitler to support the Nationalists. From 20 July onward Franco was able,... | head of the column at |
the town of Maqueda( some 80 km away from Madrid), Franco ordered a detour to free the besieged garrison at the Alcázar of Toledo, which was achieved on 27 September. This controversial decision gave the Popular Front time to strengthen its defenses in Madrid and hold the city that year, but with Soviet support. Kennan... | on as long as possible |
and thus tied up Hitler for a long time." The general who informed Orlov of this was shocked by the Machiavellian calculation of the Politburo which, in its desire to obtain time, wanted the Spanish people to bleed as long as possible. Rise to power. The designated leader of the uprising, General José Sanjurjo, died on... | on Madrid in November 1936, |
Franco settled on a piecemeal approach to winning the war, rather than bold maneuvering. As with his decision to relieve the garrison at Toledo, this approach has been subject of some debate: some of his decisions, such as in June 1938 when he preferred to head for Valencia instead of Catalonia, remain particularly con... | in his propaganda, in particular |
concerning the" Martyrs of the war". While the Republican forces presented the war as a struggle to defend the Republic against fascism, Franco depicted himself as the defender of" Catholic Spain" against" atheist communism". The end of the Civil War. By early 1939 only Madrid( see History of Madrid) and a few other ar... | executions took place in the |
Francoist area, as well as 50, 000 in the Republican area, in addition to 20, 000 civilians executed by the Franco regime after the end of the war. According to Helen Graham, the Spanish working classes became to the Francoist project what the Jews were to the German Volksgemeinschaft. According to Gabriel Jackson and ... | France to discuss the possibility |
of Spain' s entry on the side of the Axis. Franco' s demands, including supplies of food and fuel, as well as Spanish control of Gibraltar and French North Africa, proved too much for Hitler. At the time Hitler did not want to risk damaging his relations with the new Vichy French government.( An oft- cited remark attri... | he abandoned the idea after |
learning that the plan would have likely failed due to Gibraltar being too heavily defended. In addition, declaring war on the UK and its allies would no doubt give them an opportunity to capture both the Canary Islands and Spanish Morocco, as well as possibly launch an invasion of mainland Spain itself. Franco was awa... | and Commonwealth, but to the |
cause of the United Nations." Similar gratitude was also expressed by the Provisional French Government. Franco interposed no obstacle to Britain' s construction of a big air base extending out of Gibraltar into Spanish territorial waters, and welcomed the Anglo- American landings in North Africa. Moreover, Spain did n... | to not having recognised the |
Israeli state) to allow 800 Egyptian Jews; many of Sephardic ancestry; safe passage out of Egypt on Spanish passports. This was undertaken through Francoist Spain' s Ambassador to Egypt, Angel Sagaz, on the understanding that they would not immediately emigrate to Israel and that the emigrant Jews would not publicly us... | war– a situation that nominally |
made Franco' s regime" the most purely arbitrary in the world". This changed in 1942, when Franco convened a parliament known as the Cortes Españolas. It was elected in accordance with corporatist principles, and had little real power. Notably, it had no control over government spending, and the government was not resp... | when, in the light of |
Cold War tensions and of Spain' s strategic location, the United States of America entered into a trade and military alliance with Franco. This historic alliance commenced with the visit of US President Dwight Eisenhower to Spain in 1953, which resulted in the Pact of Madrid. Spain was then admitted to the United Natio... | to be Catholic, and some |
official jobs even required a" good behavior" statement by a priest. Civil marriages which had taken place in Republican Spain were declared null and void unless they had been confirmed by the Catholic Church. Divorce was forbidden, along with contraceptives, and abortion. Most country towns and rural areas were patrol... | Franco initially pursued a policy |
of autarky, cutting off almost all international trade. The policy had devastating effects, and the economy stagnated. Only black marketeers could enjoy an evident affluence. On the brink of bankruptcy, a combination of pressure from the United States and the IMF managed to convince the regime to adopt a free market ec... | Presidente del Gobierno"), remaining only |
as head of state and commander in chief of the military. As his final years progressed, tensions within the various factions of the" Movimiento" would consume Spanish political life, as varying groups jockeyed for position in an effort to win control of the country' s future. The assassination of prime minister Luis Ca... | s remains for reburial elsewhere. |
Deputy Prime Minister Carmen Calvo Poyato stated that having Franco buried at the monument" shows a lack of respect... for the victims buried there". The government gave Franco' s family a 15- day deadline to decide Franco' s final resting place, or else a" dignified place" would be chosen by the government. On 13 Sept... | strong anti- communist and nationalist |
views, economic policies, and opposition to socialism as major factors in Spain' s post- war economic success and later international integration. Abroad he had support from Winston Churchill, Charles De Gaulle, Konrad Adenauer and many American Catholics, but was strongly opposed by the Roosevelt and Truman administra... | to private individuals. Furthermore, the |
resolution urged the Spanish authorities to set up an underground exhibit in the Valle de los Caidos monument to explain the" terrible" conditions in which it was built. Finally, it proposed the construction of monuments to commemorate Franco' s victims in Madrid and other important cities. In Spain, a commission to" r... | less than 12 hours before |
he gets his chance to plead his case on television, and he encounters the wide- ranging effects of displacements upon aspects of human behavior such as settlement, crime, natural resources, agriculture, waste management and tourism. Use in other works. In various other books, for example" Ringworld", Niven suggests tha... | awarded in the summer of |
1852. Theory of chemical structure. In 1856, Kekulé became Privatdozent at the University of Heidelberg. In 1858, he was hired as full professor at the University of Ghent, then in 1867 he was called to Bonn, where he remained for the rest of his career. Basing his ideas on those of predecessors such as Williamson, Cha... | on the same subject. The |
empirical formula for benzene had been long known, but its highly unsaturated structure was a challenge to determine. Archibald Scott Couper in 1858 and Joseph Loschmidt in 1861 suggested possible structures that contained multiple double bonds or multiple rings, but the study of aromatic compounds was in its earliest ... | in print. Others have speculated |
that Kekulé' s story in 1890 was a re- parody of the monkey spoof, and was a mere invention rather than a recollection of an event in his life. Kekulé' s 1890 speech, in which these anecdotes appeared, has been translated into English. If one takes the anecdote as reflecting an accurate memory of a real event, circumst... | on the Austrian lands, now |
organized as a single state, for his son. This imperial revival( as well as the rise of the territorial state) began under the reign of Frederick. Early life. Born at the Tyrolean residence of Innsbruck in 1415, Frederick was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Leopoldian line of ... | III travelled to Italy to |
receive his bride and to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. His fiancée, the 18- year- old" infanta" Eleanor, daughter of King Edward of Portugal, landed at Livorno( Leghorn) after a 104- day trip. Her dowry would help Frederick alleviate his debts and cement his power. The couple met at Siena on 24 February and proceeded ... | the stipulations, Frederick took on |
his guardianship. This led to conflicts between Frederick and other members of the royal family and nobility. His first major opponent was his brother Albert VI, who challenged his rule. He did not manage to win a single conflict on the battlefield against him, and thus resorted to more subtle means. He held his second... | Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria, |
was another result of intrigues and deception, but must be counted as a defeat for Frederick. Albert illegally took control of some imperial fiefs and then asked to marry Kunigunde( who lived in Innsbruck, far from her father), offering to give her the fiefs as a dower. Frederick agreed at first, but after Albert took ... | minded princes( who wanted to |
reform the Empire without strengthening the imperial hand), capitalized on Frederick' s desire to secure the imperial eletion for Maximilian. Thus in his last years, he presided over the initial phase of Imperial Reform, which would mainly unfold under his son Maximilian. Maximilian himself was more open to reform, alt... | located 97 km from the |
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